AP European History Unit 2: The Age of Reformation (1450-1648)

House of Lords

The upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, consisting of appointed life peers, bishops, and hereditary peers, playing a significant role in legislative processes; reserved for landed citizens

House of Commons

The lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, composed of Members of Parliament elected by the public, which played a crucial role in the legislative process and holds government accountable; reserved for those without land, even if they were wealthy

patriarchy

a system in which all European countries in the 16th century existed; men have more rights, esteem, and opportunities as compared to women; existed mostly in the upper classes

The Woman Question

A debate about women's roles and rights in society, particularly regarding education, employment, and suffrage, highlighting the inequalities women faced during the 16th century.

one side argued that women were naturally inferior to men; the other side argued that the reason women appear less competent is due to a lack of opportunity

Carnival

A festive season occurring before Lent, characterized by public celebrations, parades, and parties, where participants engage in revelry, often involving costumes and masks.

charivari

A traditional French custom involving noisy celebrations or mockery, typically used to publicly humiliate someone, often involving a variety of sounds, such as clanging pots and pans.

blood sports

Events involving animals fighting each other or against humans, often celebrated for their entertainment value during the 16th century.

All Saints Day

A Christian festival celebrated on November 1st, honoring all saints, known and unknown, with prayers and remembrance.

Witchcraft Trials

Historical persecutions of individuals accused of witchcraft, often leading to severe punishments or executions, particularly prevalent in the 16th and 17th centuries; Protestants and Catholics both agreed that witchcraft was evidence of a pact with the devil, and therefore needed to be extinguished

Jean Bodin

was a French philosopher and jurist known for his theories on sovereignty and the state, advocating for a strong centralized government as a remedy for social instability.

Heinrich Kramer

was a German churchman and inquisitor, co-author of the Malleus Maleficarum, which argued for the prosecution of witches and promoted the witch trials in the late 15th century.

Malleus Maleficarum

a seminal treatise on witch-hunting published in 1487, which provided the legal framework for the persecution of witches in Europe.

Anton Fugger

was a prominent German banker and a key figure in the economic landscape of 16th-century Europe, known for his influence in financing trade and supporting the Habsburg monarchy.

Paula de Eguiluz

A healer of African descent in 16th-century Puerto Rico, known for her involvement in midwifery and healing practices. She was accused of witchcraft and became a notable figure in the witch trial narratives.

Lying-In-Nurse

a caregiver or midwife who assists women during childbirth, often providing support and care in the home during the postpartum period; a common target for the accusation of witchcraft

Faust

A legendary figure who makes a pact with the devil for knowledge and power, often depicted as a scholar or magician.

Michel de Montaigne

A French Renaissance philosopher known for popularizing the essay as a literary form, exploring humanism and self-reflection; spoke against the witchcraft trails

Catholic Reformation

A major movement within the Catholic Church in the 16th century aimed at reforming its practices and teachings in response to the Protestant Reformation, which led to the establishment of new Catholic doctrines and the reaffirmation of traditional ones.

Pope Paul III

the pope who initiated the Catholic Counter-Reformation and convened the Council of Trent.

Council of Trent

A series of meetings held between 1545 and 1563 aimed at addressing issues of church reform and clarifying Catholic doctrine in response to Protestant challenges; upheld most Catholic ideas including transubstantiation and reaffirmed the importance of tradition and the authority of the Pope; began the Papal Index; declared the Church’s power over marriage

EXPANDED the Catholic Church’s power

Inquisition

A group of institutions within the Catholic Church aimed at combating heresy through questioning, interrogation, and enforcing doctrinal conformity; ended up targeting Protestants and searching for heresy among conquered people in the New World

Papal Index (Index of Prohibited Books)

A list of prohibited books created by the Catholic Church to prevent the reading of heretical or dangerous literature.

Ignatius of Loyola

Founder of the Jesuits, he established a religious order focused on education, missionary work, and loyalty to the Pope.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola, dedicated to education (focused on both religion and humanism), missionary work, and promoting the Catholic faith; they also reported back to Europe findings about methods of production, such as that of porcelain in China; all male

Saint Teresa

of Avila, a prominent Spanish mystic and reformer of the Carmelite Order, known for her writings on prayer and spirituality as well as her role in the Counter-Reformation.

Ursulines

A Catholic religious order founded in the 16th century, dedicated to educating girls and promoting the Catholic faith, established by Saint Angela Merici; much like a feminine version of the Jesuits; they also had a missionary impulse

Carmelite Order

A Catholic religious order known for its contemplative life and spirituality, reformed by Saint Teresa of Avila during the Counter-Reformation.

church dogma

The set of doctrines established by the Catholic Church, governing its beliefs and practices, often challenged during the Reformation; affirmed in the Council of Trent

baroque

A highly decorative and theatrical style of architecture, art, and music that emerged in Europe in the late 16th century, characterized by grandiosity and dramatic expressions, often associated with the Catholic Counter-Reformation; replaced mannerist art

Artemisia Gentileschi

A prominent Italian Baroque painter known for her powerful depictions of biblical women and her contributions to the art world during the 17th century.

Peter Paul Rubens

A leading Flemish Baroque painter known for his dynamic compositions, vibrant color, and exuberant figures. His works often celebrated themes of mythology, religion, and history.

Bernini

An Italian Baroque artist and architect; renowned for his sculptures and dramatic fountains, most notably the Throne of Saint Peter in St. Peter's Basilica.

Mannerism

A style of art that emerged in the Reformation, characterized by elongated forms, exaggerated poses, and a lack of clear perspective, often reflecting emotional intensity.

El Greco

A Greek painter who became significant in the Spanish Renaissance, known for his distinctive, mannerist style that combines elements of Byzantine art, elongated figures, and dramatic use of color, often depicting religious subjects.

Martin Luther

A German monk and theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the Catholic Church's practices, particularly the sale of indulgences; he advocated for salvation through faith alone.

Purgatory

A state of purification for souls who have died in grace but still need to be purified before entering heaven.

indulgences

Payments made to the Catholic Church for the remission of sins or reduction of punishment in purgatory; advertised that purchasing one of these would release a loved one’s soul from purgatory

Saint Peter’s Basilica

The largest church in the world and a major architectural masterpiece of the Renaissance, located in Vatican City, it serves as a central place of worship for the Catholic Church; Pope Leo X raised money for its construction with indulgences

Pope Leo X

A pope during the Renaissance known for his lavish lifestyle and the widespread sale of indulgences to fund the reconstruction of Saint Peter's Basilica

95 Theses

A list of propositions for academic debate written by Martin Luther in 1517, criticizing the Catholic Church's practices, particularly the sale of indulgences, and igniting the Protestant Reformation.

Diet of Worms

A formal assembly held in 1521 where Martin Luther was summoned to defend his beliefs before the Holy Roman Emperor, resulting in his excommunication from the Catholic Church

Charles V

The Holy Roman Emperor during the Reformation, he convened the Diet of Worms and opposed Martin Luther's teachings, seeking to maintain Catholic unity.

Fredrick the Wise

A German prince and elector of Saxony who protected Martin Luther and provided him with sanctuary after the Diet of Worms, facilitating the spread of Reformation ideas.

Schmalkaldic League

An alliance of Holy Roman Empire Lutheran princes formed in 1531 to defend their rights and beliefs against the Catholic Church and Charles V's authority during the Reformation.

German Peasants’ Revolt

A widespread uprising in 1524-1525 by German peasants against oppressive feudal conditions, inspired by the Reformation's calls for religious and social change, which ultimately was suppressed violently and discouraged by Luther

Ulrich Zwingli

A leader of the Reformation in Switzerland; agreed with Luther on his main criticisms of the papacy, but disagreed on the Eucharist (Communion) in that he believed that Communion was a purely symbolic ritual while Luther believed in consubstantiation

Eucharist

A Christian sacrament commemorating the Last Supper, involving the consumption of bread and wine to represent Christ's body and blood.

transubstantiation

The Catholic belief that during the Eucharist, the substance of bread and wine transforms into the actual body and blood of Christ, while the appearances of bread and wine remain.

consubstantiation

A theological concept associated with Martin Luther, asserting that during the Eucharist, Christ's body and blood coexist with the bread and wine, rather than transforming into them.

Anabaptists

A Protestant sect that emerged from Zwinglianism during the Reformation, advocating for adult baptism and the separation of church and state, often facing persecution for their beliefs.

Avignon, France

The residence of the popes from 1309 to 1377, as the King of France had, following tensions between him and the papacy, pressured the papacy to move there; the popes who lived here did not focus on spiritual wellbeing of the church and rather consolidating power; results in tensions when the papacy moves back to Rome and two popes in Rome and here both claiming absolute power

fed into tensions fueling the Reformation, as people saw the Church as corrupt.

simony

The buying or selling of ecclesiastical privileges, offices, or sacraments, often seen as a corrupt practice within the church.

Priesthood of All Believers

The belief that every Christian has direct access to God and can interpret Scripture independently, emphasizing the equality of all believers in spiritual matters; arose from Martin Luther.

Sola Scriptura

The doctrine that Scripture alone is the ultimate authority in matters of faith and practice, rejecting other sources of authority such as tradition or church teachings. This principle was a key tenet of the Reformation, particularly advocated by Martin Luther.

John Calvin

A prominent Protestant reformer who developed the theological system of Calvinism, emphasizing predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the importance of Scripture in Christian faith; sought to systematize Protestant doctrine

predestination

The doctrine that God has eternally chosen those whom he intends to save, with others destined for damnation; these people are called the Elect, and this status can be shown by financial success. This concept is central to Calvinism and emphasizes God's sovereignty in the salvation process.

The Institutes of Christian Religion

Written by John Calvin, this foundational theological work systematically outlines Calvinist beliefs, including doctrines of predestination, the nature of God, and the role of faith in salvation.

the Elect

Those predestined by God for salvation in Calvinism who would reach salvation no matter what

theocracy

A system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a deity, often linked to religious law and beliefs; this system was used in John Calvin’s state.

Ivan the Terrible

The first Tsar of Russia, known for his complex reign that included territorial expansion, the establishment of a centrally controlled government, and periods of extreme violence and oppression.

Affair of the Placards

A series of protests against the Catholic Church that included the posting of anti-Catholic placards in France, leading to increased tensions between Protestants and Catholics.

the War of the Roses

A series of civil wars in England fought between the houses of Lancaster and York for control of the throne, lasting from 1455 to 1487; led to Henry VIII needing to consolidate power

Spanish Armada

A fleet sent by Phillip II of Spain, the previous husband of Mary Tudor, in 1588 to invade England, ultimately defeated by the English navy under Elizabeth I, marking a significant turning point in naval power and Protestant Reformation.

Iconoclasts

Supporters of the Protestant Reformation who sought to destroy religious images and icons in churches, believing they led to idolatry.

Gallicanism

A doctrine that emphasizes the independence of the French church from papal authority, asserting the right of the French monarch to control ecclesiastical appointments and affairs.

Huguenots

French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin and faced persecution.

Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

A violent attack on Huguenots in France during the night of August 24, 1572, which resulted in the slaughter of thousands.

King Henry of Navarre

Leader of the Huguenots who escaped death in the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre and became King Henry IV of France and enacted the Edict of Nantes to grant religious tolerance.

allied himself with Protestants against the Catholics during the civil war, but eventually converted to Catholicism during his reign

Politiques

leaders who put aside their personal beliefs in order to assure stability and tranquility

ex. Elizabeth I of England and King Henry IV of France

John Wycliffe

An early English critic of the Church, he advocated for scripture translation into the vernacular and questioned papal authority. His ideas laid the groundwork for the later Protestant Reformation.

Jan Hus

A Czech theologian and reformer who criticized the corrupt practices of the Catholic Church, advocating for church reform and promoting the Bible as the sole authority in Christianity. His execution in 1415 inspired further dissent and was a precursor to the Protestant Reformation.

Puritans

Members of a group seeking to purify the Church of England from Roman Catholic practices. They emphasized personal piety and a strict moral code.

James I

A monarch of England who authorized the King James Version of the Bible in 1611, reflecting his interest in promoting a more accessible scripture. His reign saw conflicts between the monarchy and Puritan reformers.

Charles I

The king of England whose rule from 1625 to 1649 led to a struggle between monarchy and Parliament; he believed in the Divine Right of Kings, and therefore disregarded Parliament, accruing unapproved debt from the Thirty Years’ War and heavily taxing. resulting in the English Civil War. His attempts to enforce religious uniformity alienated many, including the Puritans.

Personal Rule

The period from 1629 to 1640 when Charles I ruled England without calling Parliament, leading to increased tensions and opposition, particularly from Puritan groups.

Short Parliament

The first of two parliaments summoned by Charles I in April 1640, lasting only three weeks. It aimed to secure funding for the ongoing war with Scotland but was dissolved when members resisted his demands.

Long Parliament

The Parliament convened in November 1640 that lasted until 1660, significantly limiting the powers of the monarchy and allowing for various reforms, including actions against Charles I.

New Model Army

An army formed in 1645 during the English Civil War, created by Parliament to provide a disciplined and effective military force against Royalist troops, which became known for its effectiveness and leadership under Oliver Cromwell.

Oliver Cromwell

A military and political leader during the English Civil War, he became the Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland.; played a crucial role in the defeat of the Royalists and was known for his strict Puritan beliefs and governance; became a sort of absolutist ruler himself when in power, establishing a protectorate

Protectorate

A political system established by Oliver Cromwell in England from 1653 to 1658, where he ruled as Lord Protector, implementing Puritanical laws and governance while suppressing royalist sentiments; when Parliament did not agree with him, he dismissed them

Restoration Period

The period following the English Civil War when the monarchy was restored in 1660 with Charles II ascending to the throne, marking a return to traditional royal governance after a decade of republican rule.

Charles II

monarch who rose to the English throne following the English Civil War; he schemed with France and clashed with Parliament

James II

the last Stuart king of England; his reign from 1685 to 1688 faced resistance due to his Catholicism (+ appointment of Catholics to Parliament) and attempts to increase royal power, leading to the Glorious Revolution.

Mary and William of Orange

monarchs who took the English throne in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution; their reign marked the establishment of constitutional monarchy, reducing the powers of the monarchy in favor of Parliament.

Glorious Revolution

The bloodless coup in 1688 that resulted in James II being deposed and replaced by William and Mary of Orange, leading to the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England; resulted in the Divine Right of Kings becoming null.

English Bill of Rights

An act passed in 1689 that outlined the rights of Parliament and the rights of individuals, limiting the powers of the monarch and establishing many fundamental civil liberties.

Charles IX

A king of France from 1560 to 1574, known for his reign during the French Wars of Religion. His rule was marked by the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572, which targeted Huguenots and exacerbated the conflict between Catholics and Protestants.

Catherine de Medici

the Catholic mother of Charles IX of France who ruled for him while he was too young; sought to purge France of the Huguenots, organizing the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

Massacre of Vassy

a pivotal event in the French Wars of Religion that occurred in 1562 when troops loyal to the Duke of Guise attacked a Huguenot congregation, leading to widespread conflict.

Guise family

a powerful Catholic family in France instrumental in the French Wars of Religion, known for their opposition to Protestantism and involvement in the Massacre of Vassy.

War of the Three Henrys

a civil war in France from 1589 to 1598 involving Henry III, Henry of Navarre, and Henry I of Guise, all vying for the French throne that resulted in significant political changes and ultimately led to the rise of Henry of Navarre as Henry IV.

Henry III

the last Valois king of France (Catholic) who reigned from 1574 until his assassination by a monk in 1589, known for his involvement in the French Wars of Religion and the War of the Three Henrys; was not Catholic enough for Henry I of Guise who wanted to secure the throne himself

Henry I of Guise

a powerful leader of the Guise family, known for his strong opposition to Protestantism and key role in the French Wars of Religion, particularly the War of the Three Henrys; launched war on King Henry III, as he did not believe him to be vehemently Catholic enough; took the French throne with the help of the Catholic Spanish; his assassination was ordered by Henry III.

Edict of Nantes

officially established France as a Catholic state, but also provided Huguenots the freedom to worship without fearing that they would be massacred or otherwise harassed

Hapsburgs

a powerful Catholic European family that controlled vast territories in Spain, Austria, and the Holy Roman Empire and played a significant role in the political landscape of the 16th and 17th centuries.

Phillip II

King of Spain and a prominent figure in the Counter-Reformation, known for his efforts to maintain Catholic hegemony in Europe, his role in the Spanish Armada, and his extensive reign over the Spanish Empire; also held back Ottoman expansion

William of Orange

a leader of the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule (led by Phillip II), he became a key figure in the struggle for Dutch independence and is considered a founding father of the Netherlands.

Thirty Years’ War

a war occurring in the Holy Roman Empire resulting from the Peace of Augsburg’s exclusion of any Protestant sects outside of Lutheranism,

Ferdinand

Holy Roman Emperor who played a significant role in the Thirty Years' War, known for his staunch Catholicism and attempts to suppress Protestantism in his domains

Defenestration of Prague

the event in 1618 where Protestant nobles threw two Catholic officials sent by Fredrick to re-Catholicize Bohemia out of a window, igniting the Thirty Years' War.