Cognitive Psy 13

Affirming the antecedent

A conditional syllogism of the following form: If p, then q; p; therefore, q. The antecedent, p, is affirmed in the second premise. This is a valid form of conditional syllogism. See Table 13.1. See also Denying the consequent.

Affirming the consequent

A conditional syllogism of the following form: If p, then q; q; therefore, p. This is an invalid form of conditional syllogism. See Table 13.1. See also Denying the antecedent.

Antecedent

In a conditional syllogism, the term p in the conditional premise "If p, then q." See also Consequent.

Availability heuristic

We base our judgments of the frequency of events on what events come to mind.

Base rate

The relative proportions of different classes in a population. Failure to consider base rates can often lead to errors of reasoning.

Categorical syllogism

A syllogism in which the premises and conclusion describe the relationship between two categories by using statements that begin with all, no, or some.

Conclusion

The final statement in a syllogism, which follows from the two premises.

Conditional syllogism

Syllogism with two premises and a conclusion, like a categorical syllogism, but whose first premise is an "If . . . then . . ." statement.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and to overlook information that argues against it.

Conjunction rule

The probability of the conjunction of two events (such as feminist and bank teller) cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (feminist alone or bank teller alone).

Consequent

In a conditional syllogism, the term q in the conditional premise "If p, then q." See also Antecedent.

Decisions

Making choices between alternatives.

Deductive reasoning

Reasoning that involves syllogisms in which a conclusion logically follows from premises. See also Inductive reasoning.

Denying the antecedent

A conditional syllogism of the following form: If p, then q; not p; therefore, not q. This is an invalid form of conditional syllogism;. See Table 13.1. See also Affirming the consequent.

Denying the consequent

A conditional syllogism of the following form: If p, then q; not q; therefore, not p. The consequent, q, is denied in the second premise. This is a valid form of conditional syllogism. See Table 13.1. See also Affirming the antecedent.

Evolutionary perspective on cognition

The idea that many properties of our minds can be traced to the evolutionary principles of natural selection. See also Social exchange theory.

Expected emotion

Emotion that a person predicts he or she will feel for a particular outcome of a decision.

Expected utility theory

The idea that people are basically rational, so if they have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility.

Falsification principle

The reasoning principle that to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule.

Framing effect

Decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated.

Illusory correlation

A correlation that appears to exist between two events, when in reality there is no correlation or it is weaker than it is assumed to be.

Immediate emotion

Emotion that is experienced at the time a decision is being made.

Incidental immediate emotion

Emotion unrelated to the decision. An example is an emotion associated with a person's general disposition. Contrast with Integral immediate emotion.

Inductive reasoning

Reasoning in which a conclusion follows from a consideration of evidence. This conclusion is stated as being probably true, rather than definitely true, as can be the case for the conclusions from deductive reasoning.

Integral immediate emotion

Emotion that is associated with the act of making a decision. Contrast with Incidental immediate emotion.

Law of large numbers

The larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population.

Neuroeconomics

An approach to studying decision making that combines research from the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and economics.

Omission bias

The tendency to do nothing to avoid having to make a decision that could be interpreted as causing harm.

Opt-in procedure

Procedure in which a person must take an active step to choose a course of action—for example, choosing to be an organ donor.

Opt-out procedure

Procedure in which a person must take an active step to avoid a course of action—for example, choosing not to be an organ donor.

Permission schema

A pragmatic reasoning schema that states that if a person satisfies condition A, then they get to carry out action B. The permission schema has been used to explain the results of the Wason four-card problem.

Pragmatic reasoning schema

A way of thinking about cause and effect in the world that is learned as part of experiencing everyday life. See also Permission schema.

Premise

One of the first two statements in a syllogism.

Reasoning

Cognitive processes by which people start with information and come to conclusions that go beyond that information. See also Deductive reasoning; Inductive reasoning.

Representativeness heuristic

The probability that an event A comes from class B can be determined by how well A resembles the properties of class B.

Risk aversion

The tendency to make decisions that avoid risk.

Risk aversion strategy

A decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of avoiding risk. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of gains. See also Risk-taking strategy.

Risk-taking strategy

A decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of taking risks. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of losses. See also Risk aversion strategy.

Social exchange theory

An important aspect of human behavior is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people. According to the evolutionary perspective on cognition, application of this theory can lead to the conclusion that detecting cheating is an important part of the brain's cognitive makeup. This idea has been used to explain the results of the Wason four-card problem.

Stereotype

An oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people that often focuses on negative characteristics. See also Illusory correlation.

Syllogism

A series of three statements: two premises followed by a conclusion. The conclusion can follow from the premises based on the rules of logic. See also Categorical syllogism; Conditional syllogism.

Ultimatum game

A game in which a proposer is given a sum of money and makes an offer to a responder as to how this money should be split between them. The responder must choose to accept the offer or reject it. This game has been used to study people's decision-making strategies.

Utility

Outcomes that achieve a person's goals; in economic terms, the maximum monetary payoff.

Validity

Quality of a syllogism whose conclusion follows logically from its premises.

Wason four-card problem

A conditional reasoning task developed by Wason that involves four cards. Various versions of this problem have been used to study the mechanisms that determine the outcomes of conditional reasoning tasks.