AP World T&E 23-24

Absolutism (15th-18th centuries)

• A theory of government that argues a single ruler has supreme power.

• Kings like Louis XIV of France used absolutism to centralize power.

• Absolutism was challenged by revolutions and the rise of democracy.

Anglicans (16th century)

• Members of the Church of England, established by King Henry VIII.

• Anglicanism combines elements of Catholicism and Protestantism.

• The Anglican Church is still the official church of England.

Calvinists (16th century)

• Followers of John Calvin, a Protestant reformer who emphasized predestination.

• Calvinism influenced religious and political thought in Europe and North America.

• Calvinist beliefs stressed hard work and thrift, contributing to the rise of capitalism.

Capitalism (16th century)

• An economic system based on private ownership and profit-making.

• Capitalism emerged in Europe with the decline of feudalism.

• Key features include free markets, competition, and investment.

Carolingian (8th-9th centuries)

• Relating to the Frankish Empire ruled by Charlemagne.

• The Carolingian Renaissance revived classical learning and culture.

• The empire's legacy includes administrative reforms and the spread of Christianity.

Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

• A powerful Russian empress who modernized and expanded her empire.

• Catherine supported the arts and sciences during the Enlightenment.

• Her reign saw the serfdom system continue.

Catholic Reformation (16th century)

• The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation.

• The Council of Trent addressed abuses within the Church and clarified doctrines.

• The Church established new institutions like seminaries to train priests.

Charles V (1519-1556)

• Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain who ruled a vast empire.

• Charles V was constantly at war defending his territories.

• He tried to suppress Protestantism but failed to halt the Reformation.

Constitutional states (17th-18th centuries)

• Monarchies limited by a constitution that defines the ruler's power.

• England's Glorious Revolution established a constitutional monarchy.

• The United States Constitution created a separation of powers.

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

• A series of meetings that addressed Catholic doctrines during the Reformation.

• The Council reaffirmed traditional beliefs and issued reforms.

• It strengthened the papacy's authority and helped define Catholicism.

English Civil War (1642-1651)

• A conflict between Parliament and King Charles I over religion and government.

• The Parliamentarians emerged victorious and established a republic under Oliver Cromwell.

• The monarchy was restored, but Parliament's power increased.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• An Italian astronomer and physicist who supported heliocentrism.

• Galileo's discoveries challenged the prevailing Ptolemaic model of the universe.

• The Catholic Church condemned his views, but his work helped usher in the Scientific Revolution.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

• A bloodless overthrow of King James II of England by Parliament.

• William and Mary became monarchs and agreed to a Bill of Rights limiting their power.

• The revolution strengthened Parliament and established a constitutional monarchy.

Habsburgs (14th-18th centuries)

• A powerful Austrian dynasty that ruled a vast European empire.

• Charles V was the most prominent Habsburg ruler.

• The Habsburgs were often at war with France and the Ottoman Empire.

Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

• An English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer who made seminal contributions to science.

• Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation formed the basis of classical mechanics.

• His work on optics and calculus further revolutionized scientific understanding.

Johannes Gutenberg (1400-1468)

• A German blacksmith who invented the printing press with movable type.

• Gutenberg's invention revolutionized communication and knowledge dissemination.

• It played a key role in the spread of the Renaissance and Reformation.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

• A German astronomer and mathematician who discovered the laws of planetary motion.

• Kepler's laws showed planets orbited the sun in ellipses, not perfect circles.

• His work supported the heliocentric model and challenged traditional views.

Joint-stock companies (17th century)

• Businesses financed by selling shares to investors.

• Joint-stock companies funded exploration and colonization ventures

• Examples of joint-stock companies include the EIC and VOC.

Louis XIV (1643-1715)

• Reigned as King of France, known as the "Sun King." (17th century)

• Promoted absolutism, centralizing power and building a strong military.

• His reign oversaw cultural achievements in art, literature, and architecture, including the Palace of Versailles.

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

• German monk and theologian who sparked the Protestant Reformation. (16th century)

• Challenged the Catholic Church's authority with his Ninety-Five Theses.

• Advocated for justification by faith alone and a direct relationship with God.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

• Polish astronomer who proposed a heliocentric model of the universe. (16th century)

• His theory placed the sun, not Earth, at the center of the solar system.

• Copernicus' work laid the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution.

Ninety-Five Theses (1517)

• A document written by Martin Luther outlining criticisms of the Catholic Church. (16th century)

• The theses challenged the sale of indulgences, a practice Luther believed undermined faith.

• Their publication is considered the start of the Protestant Reformation.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

• A series of treaties ending the Thirty Years' War in Europe. (17th century)

• Recognized the independence of Netherlands and Switzerland.

• Established the principle of religious tolerance among Christian denominations.

Peter the Great (1682-1725)

• Tsar of Russia who modernized and westernized the country. (18th century)

• Peter built St. Petersburg as a new capital and introduced Western technologies and culture.

• He expanded Russia's territory and strengthened its military.

Protestant Reformation (16th century)

• A religious movement that split from the Catholic Church.

• Led by figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin, it emphasized individual faith and scripture.

• The Reformation resulted in the creation of Protestant Christian denominations.

Protoindustrialization (16th-18th centuries)

• An early stage of industrial development before factories. (Early Modern Era)

• Involved a shift from household production to small-scale workshops.

• Increased production of goods like textiles and metalwares.

Ptolemaic universe (ancient Greece-16th century)

• The prevailing astronomical model before the Scientific Revolution.

• Developed by Greek astronomer Ptolemy, it placed Earth at the center of the universe.

• Copernicus' heliocentric model challenged and eventually replaced the Ptolemaic system.

Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)

• Chief minister of France under King Louis XIII. (17th century)

• Richelieu aimed to strengthen the monarchy's power and weaken the nobility.

• He involved France in the Thirty Years' War to limit Habsburg dominance.

Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)

• Ruled Russia for over 300 years. (17th-early 20th centuries)

• Included powerful rulers like Peter the Great and Catherine the Great.

• The dynasty ended with the revolutions of 1917.

Scientific Revolution (16th-18th centuries)

• A period of intellectual change that transformed scientific understanding.

• Scientists like Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton challenged traditional views with experimentation and reason.

• The revolution laid the foundation for modern science.

Serfdom (medieval-19th centuries)

• A social system where peasants were bound to the land and labor for a lord.

• Serfs had limited freedoms and were obligated to provide rent or service.

• The system gradually declined in Europe and was abolished in most places by the 19th century.

Society of Jesus / Jesuits (1534)

• A Catholic religious order founded by St. Ignatius Loyola. (16th century)

• The Jesuits focused on education and missionary work.

• They played a key role in the Catholic Reformation and the spread of Catholicism.

Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834)

• A tribunal of the Catholic Church in Spain to identify and punish heretics. (15th-19th centuries)

• The Inquisition used torture and executions to enforce religious orthodoxy.

• Its methods and brutality are widely condemned today.

St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)

• Basque soldier who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). (16th century)

• Loyola emphasized education and discipline within the Catholic Church.

• The Jesuits became a powerful force in the Counter-Reformation

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

• A devastating religious and political conflict fought primarily in Central Europe. (17th century)

• Ignited by religious tensions between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire.

• The Peace of Westphalia ended the war, establishing religious tolerance and weakening the Holy Roman Empire.

Versailles (17th century)

• Palace complex built outside Paris by King Louis XIV of France.

• Served as the political center of France and a symbol of royal power.

• The palace exemplified Baroque architecture and lavish gardens, showcasing French art and culture.

Witch-hunts (15th-17th centuries)

• Periods of persecution of people accused of witchcraft, primarily in Europe and North America.

• Beliefs about witchcraft varied, but often centered on demonic pacts and malevolent magic.

• Witch-hunts involved accusations, interrogations, torture, and executions, fueled by social anxieties and religious tensions.

Yemelian Pugachev (1742-1775)

• A leader of a major peasant uprising in Russia during the reign of Catherine the Great. (18th century)

• Claimed to be Tsar Peter III, who had been overthrown years earlier.

• Pugachev's rebellion challenged serfdom and the power of the aristocracy, but it was ultimately crushed by Catherine's forces.

African Diaspora (15th century - present)

• The large-scale movement of people of African descent to other parts of the world.

• Primarily driven by the forced migration of millions of Africans through the transatlantic slave trade.

• Created diverse African-descended communities across the Americas, Europe, and the Indian Ocean world.

Angola (16th century - present)

• Portuguese arrive, found Luanda (1575), begin colonial presence.

• Angolan kingdoms like Ndongo resist, Queen Nzinga a key figure.

• Slave trade rises, Angola becomes major supplier to Americas.

Asante (17th century - 1902)

• A powerful West African kingdom located in present-day Ghana.

• Known for its highly centralized government, gold trade, and artistic achievements.

• Conquered by British forces in the early 20th century.

Atlantic Slave Trade (15th - 19th centuries)

• The forced transportation of millions of Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas for labor.

• A major contributor to the African diaspora and the development of plantation economies in the Americas.

• Had a devastating impact on African societies and continues to shape racial dynamics globally.

Candomblé (18th century - present)

• An Afro-Brazilian religion that combines elements of West African Yoruba beliefs with Catholicism.

• Features elaborate rituals, drumming, and a pantheon of deities.

• Plays a significant role in Brazilian culture and identity.

Creole Language (15th century - present)

• Languages that develop from the contact of two or more established languages.

• Often incorporate vocabulary and grammar from various sources, creating a new language.

• Haitian Creole, for example, emerged from French and West African languages.

Fulani (15th century - present)

• A nomadic pastoral people inhabiting parts of West and Central Africa.

• Known for their skilled horsemanship and role in spreading Islam across the region.

• The Fulani empires of Futa Jallon and Sokoto played a significant role in West African history.

Ghana (11th century - present)

• A country in West Africa.

• Formerly known as the Gold Coast, it gained independence from Britain in 1957.

• Home to the powerful empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, which flourished in the medieval period.

Great Zimbabwe (13th - 15th centuries)

• A large stone city-state located in present-day Zimbabwe.

• A center of trade in gold, ivory, and other goods.

• Evidence of a complex and sophisticated society in pre-colonial southern Africa.

Jenne (9th century - present)

• A historic city in Mali, located on the Niger River.

• Served as a major trading center for gold and salt for centuries.

• Part of the powerful empires of Ghana and Mali during the medieval period.

Khoikhoi (pre-colonial to present)

• Indigenous pastoral people of southern Africa, also known as the Namaqua.

• Known for their herding of sheep and cattle, and their complex social structures.

• Faced marginalization and displacement due to European colonization.

King Afonso I of Kongo (1509-1543)

• Ruled the Kingdom of Kongo during a period of increasing Portuguese influence.

• Converted to Christianity and initially sought cooperation with the Portuguese.

• Grew concerned about Portuguese slave-raiding and sought to limit their activities.

Kongo Kingdom (14th - 19th centuries)

• A powerful West African kingdom located in present-day Angola, Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Gabon.

• Known for its highly centralized government, skilled metalworking, and sophisticated legal system.

• Weakened by internal conflicts and the rise of the Atlantic slave trade.

Mali Empire (1235-1670)

• A vast West African empire that emerged from the Ghana Empire.

• Mansa Musa's reign (1312-1337) is considered a golden age, marked by territorial expansion and cultural flourishing.

• Trade in gold and salt across the Sahara Desert brought immense wealth to the empire.

Manioc (16th century - present)

• A starchy root vegetable native to South America, also known as cassava.

• Introduced to Africa by Portuguese traders during the Columbian Exchange.

• Became a staple food crop in many parts of Africa due to its resilience in harsh conditions.

Middle Passage (15th - 19th centuries)

• The brutal sea voyage transporting enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas.

• Characterized by horrific overcrowding, disease, and malnutrition.

• Had a devastating physical and psychological impact on millions of Africans.

Ndongo Kingdom (15th - 17th centuries)

• A powerful kingdom located in present-day Angola, often in competition with the Kingdom of Kongo.

• Queen Nzinga, a prominent ruler, fiercely resisted Portuguese encroachment and the slave trade.

• Ultimately, Ndongo was absorbed into the expanding Portuguese colony of Angola.

Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797)

• A formerly enslaved African who gained freedom in Britain and became a prominent abolitionist writer.

• His autobiography, "The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano," offers a firsthand account of the horrors of slavery.

• His work became a powerful tool in the fight against the transatlantic slave trade.

Plantation (17th - 19th centuries)

• Large-scale agricultural estates in the Americas, Caribbean, and parts of Africa, relying on slave labor.

• Produced commodities like sugar, tobacco, and cotton for export.

• The plantation system was a cornerstone of European colonial economies and a major factor in the African diaspora.

Queen Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba (1583-1663)

• A fierce and brilliant ruler who led successful resistance against Portuguese colonization in Angola.

• Known for her diplomatic skills, military strategies, and use of guerrilla warfare.

• A symbol of African resistance against European domination.

Saint-Domingue (1625-1804)

• The French colony on the western half of the island of Hispaniola, the present-day Haiti.

• A major sugar producer heavily reliant on enslaved African labor.

• The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) successfully overthrew French rule and established the independent nation of Haiti.

Santeria (19th century - present)

• An Afro-Caribbean religion that combines elements of Yoruba beliefs from West Africa with Catholicism.

• Features elaborate rituals, drumming, and a pantheon of deities.

• Practiced primarily in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and among communities of Cuban and Puerto Rican descent in the United States.

Songhay Empire (1346-1591)

• A West African empire that rivalled the Mali Empire.

• Centered at the city of Gao on the Niger River, a major trading hub.

• Emperor Sunni Ali expanded the empire's territory and controlled key trade routes.

Sunni Ali (1464-1492)

• Ruler of the Songhay Empire in West Africa. (15th century)

• Known for his military prowess and territorial expansion.

• Brought major cities like Timbuktu under Songhay control, strengthening the empire's trade and influence.

Swahili (10th century - present)

• A Bantu language with influences from Arabic and other languages, spoken primarily in East Africa.

• Developed as a language of trade along the East African coast.

• Serves as a lingua franca for communication across diverse populations in the region.

Timbuktu (12th century - present)

• A historic city in present-day Mali, located on the Niger River.

• Flourished as a major center for trade in gold, salt, and manuscripts during the medieval period.

• Renowned for its intellectual and cultural significance, attracting scholars from across the Islamic world.

Triangular Trade (16th-19th centuries)

• A system of trade routes connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. (Early Modern to Industrial Era)

• European manufactured goods were shipped to Africa.

• Enslaved Africans were transported across the Atlantic in the Middle Passage.

• Raw materials like sugar, tobacco, and cotton were shipped back to Europe.

• The Triangular Trade fueled European economies and was a major factor in the African diaspora.

Voodou (18th century - present)

• An Afro-Caribbean religion that combines elements of West African religious beliefs with Catholicism.

• Features elaborate rituals, drumming, and a pantheon of spirits or loas.

• Practiced primarily in Haiti, Louisiana, and among Haitian and Louisiana Creole communities elsewhere.