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what is attachment?
a close 2-way, reciprocal emotional bond between two people
what 3 aspects is attachment characterised by?
proximity (closeness)
separation distress
secure base behaviour (regular contact with each other)
explain reciprocity and its purpose…
two way mutual process
infant and caregiver take turns in responding to each others signals
behaviour of each elicits behaviour of the other
serves to reinforce the attachment bond
what are alert phases?
at periodic times, babies signal; (eg eye contact) when they need interaction
what did Feldman (2007) discover about alert phases?
found that these interactions were increasingly frequent from 3 months onward.
involves mother and child paying attention to facial expressions and verbal signals
What is active involvement?
both caregivers and babies initiate interactions in turn
what did Brazelton et al (1975) state about active involvement?
described it as a dance where each person responds to the others moves
What is interactional synchrony?
adult and infant mirror each others actions in a synchronised manor.
respond in time to sustain communication
reinforces attachment bond
explain Meltzoff and Moore (1977) findings on synchrony…
observed babies from 2 weeks old
adult would display one of three facial expressions or one of three gestures
found significant association with adult and babies expressions and gestures
explain the findings of Isabella et al (1989) for synchrony…
observed 30 babies and mothers and assessed degree of synchrony and quality of mother infant attachment
found high levels of synchrony associated with better quality of attachment
what is a strength of research into caregiver infant interaction?
research in controlled environment
means other activity that could distract ppts can be controlled
inter-rater reliability of observations can be used
increases validity and reliability of the research
what are the issues with research into caregiver-infant interactions?
practical issues = babies spend long periods asleep which can limit data collection. can be dealt with by short, frequent observation periods.
issues of intentionality = Feldman 2012 says there is no definition of why behaviour occurs, meaning it is difficult to conclude if behaviours are intentional or unconscious.
what are the benefits of synchrony ?
better attachment
reduced stress
increased language and development
Who put forward the stages of attachment?
Schaffer and Emmerson (1964)
what where the aims of Schaffer and Emerson’s research into stages of attachment?
asses whether there is a pattern of attachment common in all children
identify the stages of attachment formation
what was the procedure of Schaffer and Emerson’s research into stages of attachment?
longitudinal study of 60 new-borns and their mothers in working-class Glasgow
studied in their homes every month for a year (follow up after 6 months later)
observations and interviews
attachment measured by separation protest and stranger anxiety
what are Schaffer’s 4 stages of attachment?
antisocial/pre-attachment (birth-3 months)
indiscriminate attachment (3-7/8 months)
specific/discriminate attachment (7-8 months onwards)
multiple attachments (9 months onwards)
describe the 1st of Schaffers stages of attachment…
antisocial/pre-attachment
from 6 weeks infants become more attracted to humans, preferring them to objects or events
demonstrated by smiling at people
describe the 2nd of Schaffers stages of attachment…
indiscriminate attachment
start discriminating between familiar and unfamiliar people
will allow strangers to look after them
describe the 3rd of Schaffers stages of attachment…
specific/discriminate attachment
infants develop specific attachments, staying close to their primary attachment figure, separation distress, and protest handling by strangers.
describe the 4th of Schaffers stages of attachment…
multiple attachments
form attachments with other people like grandparents or siblings, fear of strangers weakens but attachment remains the strongest to the mother figure
what were Schaffer’s findings in his stages of attachment?
primary attachments were formed in people who displayed responsive sensitivity to a baby’s needs, not always their feeder/changers
most babies formed multiple attachments: at 18 months 87% of babies had 2 attachments, 75% had attachment with the father, 31% had 5 or more
what are the strengths of Schaffer’s research into stages of attachment?
natural setting = caregiver and infant usually observed in their home increasing external validity
real-world applications = stages of attachment have been applied to child-care settings, the importance of having a familiar adult during specific attachment stage
what are the weaknesses of Schaffer’s research into stages of attachment?
research is usually observational = and may be observer bias as babies cannot communicate (false inferences)
lack of empirical evidence = limitation of the measures used to assess attachment in the asocial stage, babies are immobile and uncoordinated ,so findings may be inaccurate
Why do infants form multiple attachments?
different people to meet different needs
what are the stereotypical roles of father and mother attachments?
mother = loving care
father = exciting, play
what were Grossman’s 2002 findings related to the role of the father?
carried out a longitudinal study looking at both parent’s behaviours and their relationship with the quality of the child’s attachment in their teens
found mothers’ attachment at a young age had an influence but not fathers
shows father attachment is less important however quality of play did have influence
what did Bowlby argue about primary and secondary attachment figures?
primary attachment figure = mother, caregiver
the secondary attachment figure = father, economic provider and playmate
not all attachments are equivalent
(can be seen as an outdated and sexist point of view)
who conducted research into fathers as secondary attachment figures?
Geiger (1996)
Explain Geiger’s research into fathers as secondary attachment figures.
observational study showing fathers’ play interactions are exciting and mothers are nurturing
fathers interactions aid physical and cognitive development
supports the idea of fathers as playmates rather than caregivers
who conducted research into fathers as primary attachment figures?
lamb (1987)
Sethna et al. (2017)
Scatliffe et al (2019)
Explain Lamb’s research into fathers as primary attachment figures.
found fathers who become the main care providers quickly develop sensitivity to their child’s needs, meaning this is not a biological trait limited to women
fathers can be primary attachment figures
Explain Sethna’s research into fathers as primary attachment figures.
found at age 2 children with fathers who were more engaged and sensitive showed increased cognitive development
means fathers should be encouraged to have active involvement in their child’s development and spend more time with their young children
Explain Scatcliffe et al’s research into fathers as secondary attachment figures.
meta-analysis demonstrating maternal and paternal oxytocin levels are equal
what are the economic implications for research into the role of the father?
fathers remaining at home - contribute to the economy less, and more mothers return to work contributing to the economy
changing laws of paternal leave (government funded), impact on employers
gender pay gap may be reduced if parental roles are regarded as more equal
what are the two explanations put forward for attachment?
learning theory = conditioning, nurture, and behaviour based on how you were brought up and the environment
Bowlby’s monotropic theory = nature, behaviour is based on your biology
how can classical conditioning be used to explain attachment?
UCS - UCR, NS + UCS - UCR, CS - CR
person who feeds infant becomes associated with food
infant attaches to this person due to the association
how can operant conditioning be used to explain attachment?
based on reinforcement behaviours
positively reinforced, for example conform from the mother when they cry strengthening the attachment bond
care giver becomes a secondary reinforcer by association
what are the positive evaluations of learning theory as an explanation for attachment?
plausible and scientific explanation (confidence in the explanation) as it is founded in science and is likely that there is association between food and attachment
what are 3 negative evaluations of learning theory as an explanation for attachment?
evidence that challenges it (Harlow, comfort over food),
other theories are more credible, eg. monotropic, with an emphasis on interaction and responsiveness
simplistic, focus on basic processes are too simple to explain complex topics, not a full explanation
what is the main idea of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?
behaviour is based on biology and your behaviour is a result of innate characteristics (survival)
what are the 5 aspects of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?
innate and adaptive
monotropy
social releasers
critical period
internal working model (continuity hypothesis)
explain innate and adaptive as a characteristic of Bowlby’s monotropic theory.
attachment is a biological process
it is adaptive/essential for survival
it is an innate drive
explain monotropy as a characteristic of Bowlby’s monotropic theory.
attachment at first to a single specific caregiver
seek proximity for safety ‘safe base behaviour’
explain social releasers as a characteristic of Bowlby’s monotropic theory.
infants born with a set of behaviours to gain attention and responses from others
‘social releasers’
designed to attract carer reciprocity for survival
explain critical period as a characteristic of Bowlby’s monotropic theory.
attachment occurs in a specific window of time
0-2 yrs
attachment must occur otherwise child’s cognitive and emotional development may be flawed
explain the internal working model as a characteristic of Bowlby’s monotropic theory.
early life experiences will influence later life experiences ‘continuity hypothesis’
infants have an internal template of their relationship with primary caregiver (IWM)
gives infants expectations about what relationships should be like
can have a negative or positive internal working model
what are two positive evaluations of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?
evidence from animal studies supports the role of the critical period, Lorenz and Goslings
support for the internal working model = Kerns 1994 found securely attached infants have better quality relationships in childhood
what are three negative evaluations of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?
CP has been criticised for rigidity, replaced by the sensitive period where it more likely to occur at this time
mixed evidence for monotropy = Shaffer and Emmerson found a minority of infants formed multiple attachments from birth (not an essential feature of attachment)
outdated and sexist way of looking at attachment and role of the father (Lamb and Sethna)
what did konrad Lorenz investigate (1935)?
imprinting
where young animals would follow and form an attachment, to the first, large moving object that they encountered
what was the procedure of Lorenz’s investigation into imprinting?
took a clutch of gosling eggs, divided them into two groups
one group left with the mother
other in an incubator
when incubated eggs hatched first thing they saw was Lorenz, following behaviour was recorded
marked all goslings to define which groups
all placed in an upturned box, box removed and behaviour recorded
what were the findings of Lorenz’s investigation into imprinting?
naturally hatched goslings followed their mother from birth, and the others followed Lorenz
when box was removed naturally hatched goslings went to the mother and others went to Lorenz
found imprinting only occurs within a time period of 4-25 hours after hatching
goslings that followed humans would try to mate with humans in adulthood
what were the conclusions of Lorenz’s study into imprinting?
imprinting is irreversible, which implies it is under biological control
The critical period influences other research, but was changed to the ‘sensitive period’
the behaviour of birds in adulthood concludes there is continuity between early attachment and future relationships
what did Harry Harlow investigate (1959)?
whether baby monkeys need comfort or food more
to test whether attachments are formed through food (learning theory) or it it concerns emotional security
what was the procedure of Harlow’s monkeys?
two types of surrogate mothers made: wire mother and a soft cloth mother
8 infant monkeys were studied of 165 days, 4 of the milk bottle was on the cloth mother and the other 4 milk bottle was on the wire mother
recorded how much time was spent with each mother
monkeys were made scared to test which they would do to for comfort at a time of stress
what were the findings of Harlow’s monkeys?
all 8 monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother whether or not it had the feeding bottle
monkeys who had wire mothers with bottle spent a short time getting milk and went back to cloth mother
when frightened all monkeys went to cloth their mother
did not develop normally, froze or fled when approached by other monkeys, did not cradle own babies
CP = Later research showed that spending 6 months with wire mother was not something that could be recovered from
what are the positive evaluations of animal studies?
research may be justifiable
Lorenz influenced Bowlby’s theory (CP found to be important in adoption)
Harlow influenced Bowlby to develop the maternal deprivation hypothesis = which may justify the unethical nature of studies as the findings were fundamental
what are the negative evaluations of animal studies?
not possible to generalise animal findings to humans
lorenz = nature and complexity of attachment in geese is different to humans, imprinting only occurs in precocial animals (animals mobile from birth
Harlow = Humans have more complex attachments than monkeys, but extrapolation is more possible than in geese
the study may be considered unethical
lorenz = geese suffered psychological harm as were taken away from their natural development
Harlow = separation of monkeys from mothers caused sever stress and later psychological harm ( could not form relationships
what is Ainsworth’s strange situation?
technique used to study types of attachment
controlled observation
how infants behave under mild stress due to presence of strangers and separation
the research room is a covert environment (two-way mirror)
time sampling
what was the procedure of ainsworth’s strange situation?
parent and infant enter room
parent allows infant to play
stranger enters and talks to the parent
parent leaves, stranger comforts infant if needed
parent returns, greets infant, gives comfort if needed, stranger leaves
parent leave infant alone
strangers comes to comfort
parent returns, greets infant and offers comfort
what was the aim of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
to investigate how the child used their mother for safe base behaviour, willingness to explore, stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, reunion behaviour
what are the characteristics of secure attachment?
happy to explore as careguver is safe base
anxious of strangers and uses caregiver as safe base
moderate levels of distress when caregiver leaves
joy when reunited
what are the characteristics if insecure avoidant attachment?
happy to explore but caregiver is not safe base
not anxious of strangers
indifferent when mother leaves the room
shows little reaction when reunited and ignores/avoids
what are the characteristics of insecure resistant attachment?
low willingness to explore
extreme stranger anxiety
intense separation distress
hard to soothe and sees and rejects contact
what parenting could lead to secure attachment?
responding sensitively to an infant’s needs leads to healthy relationships and development
what parenting could lead to insecure avoidant attachment?
mothers who do not respond to their child’s needs
what parenting could lead to insecure resistant attachment?
inconsistent parenting where mothers respond intermittently to their child’s needs
what are the three types of attachment?
secure
insecure resistant
insecure avoidant
what were the percentages of each attachment type in Ainsworth’s strange situation
secure 66%
insecure resistant 12%
insecure avoidant 22%
what are the positive evaluations of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
standardised procedure
can be replicated (high control) and successful across many cultures so allows comparisons
attachment type is a good predictor of later development
securely attached children have better outcomes whereas insecurely attached infants are more likely to have mental health issues
what are the negative evaluations of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
ethical issues
infants are deliberately stressed causing temporary psychological harm but if justifiable as no greater than being left with a babysitter
culture-bound test
designed for use for the British/US. eg, Japanese mothers are rarely separated from child so normally terminate the study due to high stress (methods not always appropriate)
artificial
carried out in a lab with people acting due to a script
lacks ecological validity as acting differently from everyday life
define culture
knowledge beliefs and customs shared and passed down in a society
what are the two types of cultures?
individualist = value independence
collectivist = value the group and interdependence on one another
explain the research of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg (1988)
conducted meta-analysis of studies including 35+ mother and infant pairs (less than 2 years old)
total mother infant pairs = 1990 (using strange situation)
8 countries included
secure attachment most common (highest % in the UK and least common in china )
there was a 1.5x greater variation in areas within one country than between countries .eg in usa % secure was 46% in one study to 90% in another)
explain the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg (1988)
secure attachment most common
highest % in the UK
lowest % in China
insecure avoidant highest in West Germany
insecure resistance highest in Japan
1.5x larger variation in attachment within culture than between them
what are the positive evaluations of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg meta-analysis (1988)?
large sample sizes
increases validity as anomalous results are less impactful
strange situation only test of attachment used in different countries
allows comparison across cultures and suggests validity and reliability
what are the negative evaluations of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg meta-analysis (1988)?
more variation within cultures than between
comparison between countries may be meaningless without taking into account subcultures
some studies are not representative of whole culture
sample sizes from some countries were very small lowering the chance of a universal conclusion
methods biased towards British/UK cultures
research therefore suffers from cultural bias
applying the wrong technique for the culture
define monotropy
unique close attachment to one person - a primary caregiver
what is the difference between deprivation and separation?
deprivation = extreme form of separation where no adequate care is provided
separation = often brief and there is usually substitute care
explain Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation.
continual presence of a mother figure (monotropy) is essential for emotional and cognitive development
saw the first 30 months as essential for the development
in this time (and up to 5 years) if separated for long period and deprived of attachment will cause irreversible psychological harm
child will have an inadequate working model
what are the consequences of maternal deprivation?
problems with…
intellectual development = low IQ
emotional development = emotionless psychopathy, inability to experience guilt or strong emotions (criminal behaviour)
social development =poor relationships including in adulthood
what are the positive evaluations of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
supporting evidence (Bowlby’s 44 thieves study 1944)
44 thieves compared with control of non-thieves
32% of thieves showed affectionless psychopathy, 0% of control
86% of psychopaths had experienced maternal deprivation but thieves who were not 17% maternal deprivation
real-world applications
theory has lead to changes in
hospital visiting policies (encouraged to stay with child
adoption policies (adopted as young as possible)
what are the negative evaluations of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
contradictory evidence
lewis 1954 replicated 44 thieves on larger scale
found a history of separation not able to predict criminality
challenges to critical period
koluchora 1976 twins isolated from 18 months to 7 years
looked after by loving family and recovered fully
sensitive rather than critical
difference between deprivation and privation
what is an institution?
a place where children live for a number of years (eg. orphanage or care home)
historically have provided limited care
studies on this allow psychologists to investigate effects of deprivation
what is the background on romanian orphanages?
former president of Romania banned abortion, contraception and required women to have 5 kids
families could not afford this so many went to orphanages
after 1989 revolution many were re-homed and adopted by British parents
what was the procedure of Rutters era study?
a longitudinal study of 111 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain to test if they could recover from deprivation
52 British children of the same age adopted at the same time were the control group
they were assessed at the ages of 6 and again at 11
what were the results for Rutters era study?
the children adopted before 6 months had caught up socially, emotionally and cognitively. at 11 they had caught up with British children
children adopted after 6 months had impaired language, social, skills and attachment. at 11 deficits remained, poor relationships and development intellectually.
what was the procedure of zeanah et al 2005 study?
95 children who spent most of life in institution compared to control group of 50
attachment types measured using strange situation.
carers also asked about if they had disinhibited attachment
what was the findings of zeanah et al 2005 study?
74% of control securely attached
19% of institutional securely attached
44% of the insitutional group showed disinhibited attach compared to 20% of control
why does institutionalisation have these effects?
disinhibited attachment = multiple caregivers in a sensitive period
didn’t make a secure attachment so no/unhealthy internal working model
what are the positive evaluations into research of institutionalisation?
practical applications
early adoption leads to the best outcomes
improvements to institutional care eg careworkers
long term effects are still being discovered
studies are still ongoing
what are the negative evaluations into research of institutionalisation?
studies lack validity
children not randomly assigned to conditions (age of adoption) in the Rutter study
means findings must be interpreted with caution
problems with generalising from studies
standard of care was extremely poor
findings not applicable for all institutionalised children
methodology makes drawing conclusions difficult
children not studied while in the orphanage
not possible to conclude what aspects were most influential to the effects
what does the continuity hypothesis say about childhood attachment?
that childhood attachment type will influence adult attachment type
what did kerns find about securely attached children in later life?
will have high quality relationships
explain the study of myron-wilson and smith 1998
gave questionaires to 196 children 7-11 years. assessed attachment type and experiences of bullying
what were the findings of the study of myron-wilson and smith 1998
secure = unlikely to be a bully or bullied
insecure avoidant = more likely to get bullied
insecure resistant = more likely to be a bully
suggest that attachment can predict bullying behaviour later in life
what did hazan and shaver do? 1987
love quiz published in local USA paper
early attachment experiences
current romantic attitudes and experiences
620 replies aged 14-82
what were the findings of hazan and shaver 1987?
there is a correlation between early attachment and later adult relationships
what are the negative evaluations of early attachments and later relationships (love quiz)?
questionnaires as research methods
depends on respondants being honest and having a realistic view or their relationships
data gathered retrospectively so may have trouble remembering their early attachment styles
study is correlational
cannot conclude cause and effect
third factor has a direct effect (eg. parenting style)conclusions are limited
research it deterministic
negative implications of assuming insecure attachment will have negative effects on adulthood
means people feel they have no control over their future
continuity doesn’t always occur
zimmerman et al 2000, studied German children and found little relationship between the two variables
life events had greater influence
not complete explanation