Bio 137 Comprehensive Review Questions

Differentiate between anatomy and physiology

\-study of form

\-study of function

Define cytology

The study of individual cells

Define histology

The observation of tissue specimen microscopically

Define embryology

The study of the embryo

List the 11 body systems and their functions

Respiratory, nervous, endocrine, reproductive, muscular, skeletal, digestive, integumentary, circulatory, lymphatic, urinary, digestive.

Define metabolism

The sum of all internal chemical changes and contains anabolism (synthesis), and catabolism (breakdown) reactions.

Define homeostasis

The ability to maintain stable internal conditions, and it is accomplished by the body’s negative feedback mechanisms

Explain negative and positive feedback mechanisms. Give examples

\-a process in which the body senses a change and activates a process to reverse it. Body temperature + blood pressure.

\-a physiological change leads to an even greater change in the same direction. Giving birth.

Define superior and inferior

\-higher portion of the body

\-lower portion of the body

Define medial and lateral

* towards the midline of the body
* Away from the midline of the body

Define proximal and distal

* close to the point of attachment (limbs only)
* Away from the point of attachment (limbs only)

Define superficial and deep

* Close to the surface of the body
* Away from the surface of the body

Name the body’s dorsal cavities and the organs located in each

Contains the cranial and spinal cavities. Contains the spinal column, CNS, and the meninges.

Name the body’s ventral cavities and the organs located in each

The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. Contains the digestive organs, spleen, kidneys, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs and rectum.

What are serous membranes?

Thin layers of tissue that line body cavities and organs, secreting a lubricating fluid to reduce friction and allow organs to move smoothly.

Differentiate between parietal membranes and visceral membranes

Parietal and visceral membranes are serous membranes. Parietal lines body cavity walls and visceral covers organs. Both secrete fluid to reduce friction.

Differentiate between kinetic energy and potential energy; give examples of each

* Potential energy is energy an object contains because of its position or internal state, but that is not doing work at the time. (Chemical and electrical in a battery terminal)
* Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, energy that is doing work. (Heat, electromagnetic, electrical in a current)

Differentiate between a molecule, a compound, and a mixture

* Molecule: two particles (same or different) bonded together


* Compound: two or more different atoms bonded together.
*  Mixture: two or more different atoms together but not joined

What determines how an atom will react with another atom to form a molecule?

The number of electrons in the outermost shell of a particular atom (the valence shell)

How does an iconic bond form?

An attraction of a cation and anion. They are weak and easily disassociate in the presence of more attractive molecules.

What is an ion? Differentiate between an anion and a cation.

* Ions are charged particles with unequal numbers of protons and electrons


* Anion has a negative charge


* Cation has a positive charge

Differentiate between anabolic and catabolic processes

* Anabolic is synthesizing, energy storing
* Catabolic is breakdown, energy releasing

Explain the 4 factors that influence the rate of chemical reactions

* Concentration
* Temperature
* Catalysts available
* Surface area

What is biochemistry?

* The study of the molecules that compose living organisms
* Useful for understanding cellular structure, basic physiology, nutrients and health.

Explain the carbonic acid-bicarbonate system

Process in which carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which can dissociate into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. This system helps regulate blood pH by buffering excess acid or base.

What are the building blocks of proteins. What is their general structure?

* An amino acid has a central carbon atom with an amino (–NH2) and a carboxyl group (–COOH) bound to it. Amino acids also have a *radical* (R group) attached to the central carbon; this R group may be a single hydrogen or a complex ring of carbon.

What happens when a protein undergoes denaturation? Give 2 examples

* Denaturation is usually an irreversible conformational change, such as occurs when cooking an egg.

How do hydrogen bonds form?

* A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another.

Enzymes are catalysts. What does this mean?

* Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions; they do so by releasing energy in small steps rather than all at once

What is ATP and what is it’s importance in the body?

* One of the best-known nucleotides and is the body’s most important energy-transfer molecule.

Differentiate between polar molecules and non polar molecules

* When shared electrons spend approximately equal time around each nucleus, the result is a *nonpolar covalent bond.*
* When shared electrons spend more time around one nucleus, they form a *polar covalent bond* that results in a small charge difference between different regions of the molecule. 

Differentiate between a synthesis reaction, a decomposition reaction, and an exchange reaction

* In synthesis reactions, two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one.
* In decomposition reactions, a large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones.
*  In exchange reactions, two molecules exchange atoms or groups of atoms.

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How does a covalent bond form?

* Formed by the sharing of electrons between 2 atoms

Define cell

* Simplest structural and functional unit of life

Describe the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane. How are the phospholipids arranged in the bilayer?

* The plasma membrane consists of an oily film of lipids with diverse embedded proteins
* Lipids phosphate heads are facing out with their hydrophobic tails in.

List 6 functions of the membrane proteins

* Receptors, second-messenger systems, enzymes, channel proteins, carriers, cell-identity markers, cell-adhesion molecules

Differentiate between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion

* Simple diffusion is the net movement of particles from a place of high concentration to a place of lower concentration
* Facilitated diffusion is carrier-mediated transport that moves a solute *down its concentration gradient.*

What is osmosis?

* The diffusion of water down a concentration gradient through a selectively permeable membrane.

What is filtration?

* The process by which particles are driven through the membrane by hydrostatic pressure.

How does a solute pump work?

* Solute pumping is a form of active transport of a solute through a cell membrane.
* It requires ATP in order to change the shape of the protein channels (works like facilitated diffusion)

Explain how exocytosis and endocytosis occurs

* Exocytosis releases material outside the cell
* Endocytosis brings materials into a cell 
* Both processes employ motor proteins powered by ATP.

Define mitochondria

* Mitochondria are specialized to synthesize ATP and contains a double membrane, enzymes, ribosomes and dna.

Define ribosomes

* Ribosomes are small granules of protein and RNA that translate messenger RNA into protein.

Define endoplasmic reticulum

* The endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnected cisternae enclosed by a single membrane.
* Smooth don’t have ribosomes, rough do.
* Rough ER synthesizes phospholipids and proteins of the plasma membrane andproduces proteins that are packaged in other organelles or secreted from the cell.
* Smooth ER participates in alcohol and drug detoxification, manufactures steroidhormones, and also stores calcium in muscle cells.

Define Golgi apparatus

* The Golgi complex is a system of cisternae resembling a stack of pita bread. It synthesizes and adds carbohydrate modifications to proteins prior to packaging.
* The Golgi complex receives completed proteins from rough ER, sorts them, and packages them into Golgi vesicles.
* Some are secretory vesicles that store a cell product

Define peroxisomes

*  Peroxisomes resemble lysosomes, but are produced in the ER. They use oxygen to oxidize organic molecules, producing hydrogen peroxide that is then used to oxidize other molecules.

Define lysosomes

* Lysosomes are packages of enzymes surrounded by a membrane. 
* They hydrolyze proteins and nucleic acids and aid in the digestion of phagocytized bacteria, non-vital organelles, and surplus cells.

Define cytoskeleton

* The cytoskeleton is composed of *microfilaments, intermediate filaments,* and

 

*microtubules.*
*  Microfilaments are thin and made of actin; they form a network on the inside of the plasma membrane called the membrane skeleton.
* Intermediate filaments resist stress and participate in cell junctions. In epidermal cells, they are composed of *keratin*.
* Microtubules are cylinders made of 13 parallel strands called *protofilaments,* which are made of *tubulin.* They radiate from the *centrosome* and hold organelles in place, form structural bundles, guide organelles and molecules, and form the axonemes of cilia and flagella.

What is the cell cycle?

* The cell cycle is the life cycle period from one cell division to the next. It has four main phases: *G1, S, G2*, and *M*

Explain how DNA replication occurs

* The first step is the unwinding of the double helix from the histones
* An enzyme called DNA helicase opens up a short segment of the helix, exposing the bases.The point where the DNA is opened is called the replication fork.
* Molecules of DNA polymerase match the exposed bases with complementary free nucleotides.

a. The two strands are copied by separate DNA polymerase molecules moving inopposite directions.

i. One polymerase makes a long, continuous strand; the other makes shortstrands moving away from the replication fork, and these are joinedtogether by DNA ligase.

b. Two new *daughter DNA* molecules are thus synthesized from the original parentalmolecule, and each daughter DNA consists of one old (conserved) helix and one newlysynthesized helix.

i. This process is therefore called semiconservative replication
* While DNA is synthesized in the nucleus, new histones are being synthesized in the cytoplasm and are transported into the nucleus for combination with each new DNA helix to make new nucleosomes
* Thousands of polymerase molecules work simultaneously on each DNA molecule. 

What is a gene?

* An information-containing segment of DNA that codes for the production of a molecule of RNA

What information does the genetic code give you?

* How to make proteins

Define tissue

* A group of similar cells and cell products working together to perform a specific role in an organ

Explain why histology is important to the study of anatomy, physiology, and metabolism

* The study of tissues and how they are arranged into organs 

Name the 4 principle types of tissues and the basic function of each type

* Epithelial
* Connective
* Nervous
* Muscular

What are the 6 functions of epithelial tissue?

* Protection
* Absorption
* Filtration
* Excretion
* Secretion
* Sensory reception

List the 4 major functions of connective tissues

* Binding and support
* Protection
* Insulation
* Transportation

List the 4 basic types of connective tissue and describe the structure, function, and location of each

* Connective tissue proper
* Cartilage
* Bone
* Blood

Describe the epidermis

* Stratified squamous epithelium, avascular, and contains sparse nerve endings for touch and pain.
* Thin skin that contains 5 strata: basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and corneum.

Describe the dermis

* Composed mainly of collagen
* Lots of blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and nerve endings.
* Houses hair follicles and nail roots
* Muscles of facial expression attach to dermis
* Consists of 2 layers: papillary and reticular.

Describe the hypodermis

* Refers to subcutaneous tissue that is comprised predominantly of adipose tissue
* Contains more areolar and adipose tissue than the dermis
* Pads body and binds skin to underlying tissues
* Subcutaneous fat

Name and discuss 3 pigments that contribute to skin color

* Melanin- yellow to reddish brown to black
* Carotene - yellow to orange-found in food like carrots
* Hemoglobin- oxygen binding pigment -pinkish

How does sun exposure affect the skin?

* Melanin accumulates making the skin darker since melanin protects the skin from UV rays

Name, describe, and give the location of the 3 types of cartilage

* Hyaline-Most abundant type of skeletal cartilage. Matrix contains collagen fibers. Provide support with flexibility and resilience. Include: articular cartilages -- at the ends of bones, costal cartilages -- connect ribs to the sternum, laryngeal/bronchial cartilages -- reinforce passageways, and nasal cartilages -- support the external nose


* Elastic-Contains more elastic fibers than hyaline cartilage. Very flexible. Located in only 2 skeletal locations: external ear and epiglottis
* Fibrocartilage - Parallel rows of chondrocytes and thick collagen fibers. Highly compressible and has great tensile strength. Located in the: padlike cartilages of the knee, discs between the vertebrae of the spine, and the pad between pubic bonesC

Name 5 functions of bone

* Support
* Protection
* Movement
* Mineral Storage
* Blood Cell Formation

Differentiate between osteoblasts and osteoclasts

Osteoblasts build bone, osteoclasts destroy bone

What is an osteon? Describe the structure of an osteon

* Structural unit of compact bone. Matrix laid down in concentric rings called lamellae. Lamellae surround a central (Haversian) canal. Central canal is passageway for blood vessels and nerves. Osteocytes (mature bone cells) within spaces called lacunae arranged around the lamellae. Canaliculi (tiny canals) connect the lacunae for passage of capillaries

Name some hormones that regulate bone growth and explain their function

* Growth hormone - promotes primary bone growth
* Thyroid hormone - ensures skeleton has proper proportions as growth occurs
* Sex hormones - promotes growth spurs in adolescents and masculinize or feminizes specific parts of the skeleton

Excess or deficits of my of these hormones can results in skeletal malproportion

Explain how parathyroid hormone and calcitonin control bone remodeling

* PTH - secreted when the blood calcium levels decrease, stimulates osteoclasts to resort bone, releasing calcium into the blood. When blood concentration of calcium rises, PTH release ends.
* Calcitonin - secreted when blood calcium levels increase, inhibits bone resorption by osteoclasts, and encourages calcium salt deposits in bone matrix. When the blood concentration of calcium falls, calcitonin release ends.

Name and discuss 6 functions of the integumentary system

* Protection
* Body temperature regulation
* Cutaneous sensation - the sense of touch (meissners corpuscles, pacinian receptors)
* Metabolic functions
* Blood reservoir
* Excretion

Name and discuss the 3 types of skin cancers

* Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type and usually appears as a small, shiny bump or a red, scaly patch. Cells of the stratum basale proliferate, invading the dermis and hypodermis.
* Squamous cell carcinoma is less common but can be more aggressive, often appearing as a firm, red nodule or a flat lesion with a scaly, crusted surface. Arises from keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum.
* Melanoma is the most dangerous type and can spread quickly to other parts of the body. It often appears as a dark, irregularly shaped mole or lesion. Arises from the melanocytes located in the stratum basale.

Name 2 functions of joints

* Gives our skeleton mobility
* Hold our skeleton together

Name the most common types of synovial joints

* Plane, hinge, pivots, condyloid, saddle and ball and socket joint.

Describe the movement of the 6 most common type of joints

* Plane - short slipping or gliding movements. Side to side motion and back-and-forth movements
* Hinge - permits movement in only one direction -uniaxial-like a door hinge.
* Pivot - provides rotation around a central axis. Permits a side to side movement.
* Condyloid - both articulating surfaces are oval. Permits angular movement in two directions (up-down, side-side). Biaxial - in 2 directions
* Saddle - articulating surfaces have both concave and convex area- shaped like a saddle. Permits a wide range of movement.
* Ball-and-socket joints - one bone articulates with the cup like socket of another. Multi-axial -the most freely moving synovial joints

Describe the locations of the 6 most common joints

Plane - inter carpal and intertarsal joints of wrist and ankles. Also between vertebral articular processes.

Hinge - joints of the knee, elbow, and phalanges

Pivot - the joint between the atlas and axis. Side to side movement of the head

Condyloid - joint between the radius and carpal bones (radiocarpal joint) and between metacarpals and phalanges (metacarpophalangeal joint)

Saddle - carometacarpal joint of the thumbs

Ball-and-socket - shoulders and hip joints

Differentiate between flexion and extension. Give examples

* Flexion - decreases the angle between 2 articulating bones.
* Extension - increases the angle between 2 articulating bones

Differentiate between abduction and addiction. Give examples of each

* Abduction - movement of a body part away from the midline or median plane of the body
* Adduction - movement of a body part TOWARDS the midline or median plane of the body

Name and describe 3 types of muscles

* Skeletal - attaches to and covers the bony skeleton. Striated, voluntary
* Cardiac - found only in the heart. Striated, involuntary
* Smooth - found in the visceral organs and in the respiratory passages. Unstriated, involuntary

Name 4 functional characteristics of muscle

* Excitability
* Contractility
* Extensibility
* Elasticity

Define and describe a skeletal muscle fiber

* long, cylindrical cell

Define sarcolemma

* Plasma membrane of muscle fiber

Define sarcoplasm

* Cytoplasm of muscle fiber. Contains huge amounts of glycogen and myoglobin and highly modified myofibrils and contains sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Define myofibrils

* Many found in each muscle fiber.
* All run parallel and are densely packed together
* Functions as the contractile element of skeletal muscle cells

What is a sarcomere and what is it composed of?

* The region of myofibril between 2 successive Z discs
* The smallest contractile unit of a muscle fiber
* Composed of myofilaments (thick filaments run length of A band and composed of myosin. Thin filament runs along length of I band and composed of actin.
* Z line (anchors thin filaments and connects each myofibrils to the next)

Describe the proteins actin and myosin

* Actin - made up of G actin subunits. Twisted into a helix. Tropomyosin molecules coil around actin filaments and troponin attached to the tropomyosin
* Myosin - has a rodlike tail and 2 globular heads (cross bridges) that link thick and thin myofilaments together during contraction

Explain the sliding filament theory of contraction. How is calcium involved?

https://youtu.be/nTZnBdeIb5c

Explain the 3 steps in an action potential

* Depolarization - membrane becomes depolarized due to Na+ channels opening and letting Na+ in. Depolarization spreads as the change in voltage opens voltage-gated Na+ channels.
* Repolarization - restores sarcolemma to resting potential - Na+ channels close and K+ channels open to allow diffusion of K+.
* Refractory period - diffusion of K+ ions makes the membrane hyper polarized which doesn’t allow the cell to be stimulated until it’s back to its resting stage via sodium-potassium atp pump

Explain anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic respiration

* Anaerobic glycolysis - occurs in the absence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid. Very little ATP is produced, but faster. Occurs when muscle cells have too little oxygen for complete respiration of glucose. Lactic acid can accumulate and result in muscle fatigue or soreness
* Occurs in the presence of oxygen. Results in 95% of ATP used for muscle activity. ATP is made by oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose + 02 = C02 + H20 + ATP

Name and discuss the 3 categories of skeletal muscle fibers

* Slow Oxidative - contracts slowly, depends on 02 for contraction, high endurance, fibers are thin and have limited power, lots of mitochondria, red because of abundant myoglobin.
* Fast Oxidative - contracts rapidly, depends on 02, moderately fatigue-resistant, fibers are medium size, red-pink due to intermediate amount of myoglobin. Many mitochondria.
* Fast Glycolytic - contracts rapidly, depend on glycogen, fatigues quickly, large cell-contracts powerfully, white in color-little myoglobin. Few mitochondria

Name and explain the 3 broad functions of the nervous system

* Sensory input - millions of sensory receptors pick up stimuli
* Integration - includes the interpretation of the stimuli and signals a response
* Motor output - a response effected by muscles or glands (effector organs)

What are neurons?

* The basic structural and functional units of the nervous system

Name 2 broad divisions of the nervous system and name what each division consists of

* CNS - brain and spinal cord
* PNS - includes the cranial and spinal nerves.
* Sensory (afferent), and motor (efferent) division

Differentiate between the somatic nervous division and the autonomic nervous division of the PNS

* Somatic is voluntary and conducts impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles
* Autonomic is involuntary and conducts impulses from the CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands - an involuntary response. (Sympathetic and parasympathetic)

What are ganglia?

* Clusters of cell bodies in the PNS

Describe the structure and function of dendrites

* Branched processes that extend from the cytoplasm of the cell body.
* Function to receive stimuli and conduct impulses to the cell body.
* Known as the receptive (input) region and have enormous surface area for reception of signals from other neurons.
* Impulses toward the cell body are called graded potential

Describe the structure and function of axons

* Cytoplasmic extensions from the axon hillock of the cell body.
* Varying axon length, long are called nerve fibers
* Branches at the end of axons are called terminal branches (telodendria) and at the end of those are synaptic knobs (axon terminal).
* Function - generate and transmit nerve impulses.

Give the function and examples of neurons in the sensory neurons

* Conduct nerve impulses from the skin or internal organs Toward the CNS
* Most primary sensory neurons are unipolar, located in sensory ganglia outside the CNS
* Higher order sensory neurons are all multipolar and are found entirely in the CNS

Give the function and examples of neurons in the Motor neurons

* Conduct nerve impulses Away from the CNS to effector organs (muscles and glands)
* Motor neurons are multipolar and most are located in the CNS

Give the function and examples of neurons in the Association neurons

* Lie between motor and sensory neurons
* Shuttle signals through complex CNS pathways where integration occurs
* Usually multipolar and located in the CNS
* Make up over 99% of the neurons of the body

Different between a chemical-gated and a voltage-gated channel

* Chemically gated (transmitter-gated) channels -- open when the appropriate neurotransmitter binds
* Voltage-gated channels -- open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential, or voltage