Cognitive

Test 3

Encoding

we take external stimuli and turn them into information to create memory. 1st step. (memory)

Storage

we take that information and put it away for later use (memory). 2nd step

Engram

the mostly imaginary idea that there is a single memory is stored in a specific location in the brain (Memory)(storage).

Retrieval

when we pull information to recall a memory.

Cues

pieces of information that are typically included from encoding but they’re what we're looking for in the retrieval process. (memory)

Structural

Focuses on the visual components of the information; shallow levels of processing

(Levels of Processing)

Phonemic

Focuses on the auditory components of information (primarily uses the temporal lobe); shallow levels of processing. (Levels of Processing)

Semantic

Focuses on the meaning of the information (primarily uses the frontal lobe); deep level of processing (Level of processings)

Organizational

encoding the information by connecting it to other information that's similar (primarily uses the frontal lobe).; deep level of processing. (levels of processing)

Craik & Tulving, 1972

had people look at words phonemically or semantically. They looked to see how well the participants could remember the information. The Semantic processing absolutely beats the structural and phonemic when they look at the words twice.  

(Levels of Processing)

Dual Track

Says we have effortful or automatic processing

Effortful

conscious processing, we are actively focusing our attention on information.(Dual Track)

Automatic

unconscious processing, happens outside our physical awareness. Oftentimes we see effortful processes to be automatic. (ex: tying your shoe, you don’t think about it as much). (Dual Track)

Mnemonics

Strategies meant to improve memory 

The role of interpretation

our memory is based on our interpretation of information. Once we acknowledge this, it makes it easier for us to remember information and to question our memory. (Mnemonics)

Encoding Specificity

the way we encode information, that's the easiest cue to use for retrieval. (Mnemonics)

Elaboration

Adding more information to that stimuli, this makes it easier to remember this information because you add more cues. You’re also processing the information on a deeper level. (Mnemonics)

Dual-Coding Theory

one of the best ways to encode information is to use two methods to code information (such as verbal and visual) (Mnemonics)

Self-Referent Encoding

when we can connect information to ourselves, we tend to remember it better (Mnemonic)

Cocktail Party Phenomenon

If you are in a place with a lot of sound, if someone calls your name from across the room, you will still hear your name despite the loud noise. We are always paying attention to references that regard us. Stimuli about ourselves will always stand out. (Mnemonic).

Motivation to Remember

works to serve as a retrieval cue, you increase your motivation that it increases the stimuli, it helps to you retrieve the memory (Improving Encoding)

Pegwords

if you create a strong visual image, one image will rhyme with words and the other will be a visual representation of what you need to remember. (Improving Encoding)

Method of Loci

you take a familiar location and you’re going to chart a path through that location. Along that path you will place the items you need to remember. (Improving encoding)

Chucking

Remembering individual things may be difficult, but if you pair/group information, it is easier to remember. (you group the numbers on your phone number, you don’t remember them individually) Talking about letters, numbers or words. (Improving Encoding)

Hierarchies

we tend to process information into hierarchies, a more formal organizational process. We categorize info into levels. (Improving Encoding)

Spacing Effect

Spacing says that we remember information better when we space the information out. (Improving Encoding)

Testing Effect

Testing says we remember the information better when we are tested on it (Improving Encoding)

Atkinson-Shiffrin model of Memory 

There are three categories of memory: Sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. The processes that move throughout these categories.

Sensory

short lasting memory (Types of Memory)

Sperling, 1960

flashed a grid and told participants to recall what was on the grid or they would hear a tone that told them to recall different rows. When asked to recall all the letters, they got to the 4th letter. When told to recall just one row at a time, they recalled all the letters/numbers. The duration for sensory memory is short but the capacity is big. (Types of Memory)

Short Term

transition from sensory to short term; duration is 30 seconds. If its beyond 30 seconds, some of that short term memory gets into long term memory. (Types of memory)

Miller 7+ or - 2

the average person is able to remember 5-9 pieces of information in their short term memory. (Types of memory)

Long Term Memory

Capacity is endless and the duration is enormous (Types of memory)

Procedural

automatic processing of information. You don’t consciously tap into that memory but you do unconsciously (ex: riding a bike, you unconsciously refer to the memory of knowing how to ride a bike). Most muscle memory is this (Types of Memory)

Positive Transfer

having the memory of doing one task will help you how to do another task (knowing how to play one instrument will help you master another instrument) 

(Types of Memory)

Negative Transfer

mastery of one procedure interferes with your ability to master another procedure (If you mastering one game, you could struggle when switching to another game) (Types of memeory)

Declarative

purposely searching for information and recalling it (Types of memory)

Semantic

your factual information; shared by a lot of people  

Episodic

personal memory for events (what food did you eat? Your memory will be different from other people) 

Autobiographical

most personal memory, includes all of the events you’ve experienced (episodic) but will include semantic memories. (Types of memory)

HSAM

highly superior autobiographical memory; people who are able to remember every single moment of their life. (Types of Memory)

Prospective

memory to do something in the future (ex: remembering to do my BIAT). In general, humans are bad at prospective memory(types of memory)

Retrospective

memories from the past, most of our memories will be retrospective. (Types of Memory)

Working Memory

How you are using the information in your short term memory 

Maintenance Rehearsal

meant to retain information in short term memory (Working Memory)

Elaborative Rehearsal

meant to transition that memory to long term memory (Working Memory)

Visuospatial sketchpad

what you use for visual or spatial information. (Working Memory)

Phonological Loop

for auditory or language based information (reading uses this) (Working Memory)

Central Executive

coordinate between the different parts and they determine where to send cognitive or attentional resources. (Working Memory).

Episodic Buffer

based on temporal information, keeping the information in order (Working Memory)

Benefits

working memory peaks at adulthood, working memory has a correlation with logic and reasoning skills, reading comprehension and possibly intelligence. (Working Memory)

Consolidation

Process of turning memories into stable long term memories.

Hippocampus

seems to be really critical for consolidation. Damage to the this disrupts consolidation (Consolidation)

REM

Rapid eye movement sleep, consolidation happens during this time period (Consolidation)

Reconsolidation

the process of taking previously retrieved memory and putting it back into long term memory. 

Implicit memory

memory we don’t work to recall it just happens; involves the cerebellum and the basal ganglia. More procedural memory. (Retrieving Memory)

Explicit memory

memory we work to recall involves the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. (Retrieving Memory)

Context Dependent Retrieval

including external context, easier to recall info in lecture hall than in our room. Internal context includes remembering all instances where someone you care about pissed you off when you get into a fight with them. (Retrieving Memory)

Associative networks

most of the time we fit new memories with older memories, we see these memories connect and build off each other. (Retrieving Memory).

Schemas

info that fills in that memory (ex you don’t remember exactly what you had for breakfast but you try to remember what components you had). Clusters of knowledge of an event that we use to make up for a memory. (Retrieving Memory)

Recall

Ask people to retrieve information with minimal cues (Testing Memory)

Recognition

have to be able to recognize previously learned items. (ex: multiple choice test where they have a lot of cues. You don’t have to pull any info yourself) (Testing Information)

Relearning

measure how long it takes someone to relearn a task. (Testing Information)

Retrograde Amnesia

you forget everything that happened prior to getting amnesia (Amnesia)

Anterograde Amnesia

you have the inability to form new memories. more common. (Amnesia)

Serial Positioning Effect

depending on where an item is in a list, you may be more or less likely to recall that item. (Memory Issues)

Primacy

We tend to remember the first items in a list. Seems to happen because we seemed to move these items in elaborative rehearsal to long term memory. (Memory Issues)

Recency

We tend to remember the last items in a list (items are still in short term memory) (Memory Issues)

Jennifer Thompson and Ronald Cotton

Jennifer thompson was attacked and she spent time trying to identify the attackers face, chose ronald cotton, and ended up going to jail, and eventually he was found innocent, it was bobby pool

Own Race Bias

better at distinguishing from our own race than another race. (Memory Issues)

Source monitoring

we don’t remember where we heard information from. Certain sources are more credible than other sources

Cryptoamnesia

Accidental plagiarism; the information is in your head but you don’t remember where it came from so you assume YOU created it.

Processing errors

you are incorrectly using your cognitive resources to store or retrieve information. Mistakes in short term memory are more acoustic. Mistakes in long term memory are simantic (spaghetti and lasagna) 

Tip-of-the-Tongue

you know you know the information, somewhere in your brain but you can’t pull it out.

Redintegration

using one memory as a retrieval memory for another memory 

Beneficial

Good for us to forget negative/unimportant memories, makes our cognitive processes healthier. (Forgetting)

Inability

People with an inability to forget have a hard time with reasoning and logic making. (Forgetting)

Ineffective Encoding

selective attention, not paying attention can't encode cant later retrieve (Forgetting)

Decay/transience

as you get further from the creation from the memory the memory is less detailed and retrievable (Forgetting)

Absent mindedness

A lapse in attention can result in memory failure (Forgetting)

Blocking

A failure to retrieve information that is in memory (it's on the tip of my tongue)(Forgetting)

Misattribution

assigning a recollection to the wrong source. (Forgetting)

Interference

information that is interfering with other information (Forgetting)

Proactive

knowing his old name as new inferred with ability to remember old name (old info interferes with new) 

Retroactive

new info inferred with ability to remember old info (

Suggestibility

more open to changing their memory based on others information (gaslighting)

Bias

We are more likely to remember information that we agree with and to forget information we disagree with.

Persistence

memory that is more persistent but is focused on details. (persistence of emotional reactions, the details that fit with the reaction are more likely to be remembered)

Learning Styles

some are visual, some are holistic 

Synaptic Pruning

as you learn information, you actually decrease the number of neuronal connections. (Types of Learning)

Associative

learning by pairing stimuli (Types of learning)

Classical Conditioning

pavlov and doggos (perritos) (just seeing the food, the dog was salivating) an original stimulus can elicit any response that the body is capable of. 

Operational Conditioning

actions that are rewarded are more likely to be repeated, while actions that are punished are less likely to occur

Neutral Stimuli (NS)

a stimulus that does not cause a reflective response (Mechanics of CC)

Unconditional Stimuli (US/UCS)

stimulus that naturally causes a response (if you show dogs food they naturally and reflexively start to salivate.) (Mechanics of CC)

Conditioned Stimuli (CS)

repeatedly pairing the neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus to create this new conditioned stimulus. (Mechanics of CC)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

natural reflexive response that the UCS causes. (the food (UCS) naturally causes a dog to salivate (UR). (Mechanics of CC)

Conditioned Response (CR)

The response that the conditioned stimulus causes (most of the time UR looks the same as CR; the dog salivating is the UR and CR) (Mechanics of CC)

Acquisition

time period where the NS is paired with the CS; time period where learning is occurring (bell paired with the food to turn the bell into a CS) 

Extinction

where you unlearn the information,(the CS stops, the organism knows that the bell does not mean food.)