Psych UNIT 3 AOS2: learning & memory

Learning

Learning

-Permanent changes in behaviour due to experience.

Classical conditioning

1. Neutral stimulus (NS) - anything that doesn’t produce a predictable response.

2. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - stimulus that produces an automatic response.

3. Unconditioned response (UCR) - response that occurs automatically when UCS is present.

4. Conditioned stimulus (CS) - occurs after repeated association with UCS.

5. Conditioned response (CR) - response produced by CS.

Phases of classical conditioning

1. Before conditioning - NS has no effect but UCS activates UCR.

2. During conditioning - NS pairs up with UCS to produce UCR.

3. After conditioning - NS becomes CS to activate CR (once UCR).

Operant conditioning

-Learning process whereby the consequences (reward/punishment) of a behaviour determines the likelihood of the behaviour happening again,

Three-phase model (ABC)

1. Antecedent - stimulus that occurs before the behaviour (hand signal for dog)

2. Behaviour - behaviour that occurs due to stimulus (dog sitting down).

3. Consequence - consequence due to the behaviour (dog is rewarded a treat which makes its behaviour to be repeated in the future).

Reinforcement (operant)

-When stimulus increases the likelihood of a response that it follows (reward).

1. Positive reinforcer - adding something pleasant.

2. Negative reinforcer - subtracting something unpleasant

Punishment (operant)

-Delivery of an unpleasant consequence or removal of a pleasant consequence → weakens response of it happening again.

1. Positive punishment - unpleasant stimulus that weakens response.

2. Negative punishment - removal of a desirable stimulus that weakens response.

Observational learning

-Acquisition of info, skills or behaviour through watching the performance of others.

1. Attention - learner pays attention in order to observe modelled behaviour.

2. Retention - learner mentally represents and retains what has been observed.

3. Reproduction - depending on physical capabilities, learner converts mental representation into action.

4. Motivation/reinforcement - learner must be motivated to reproduce. Reinforcement influences motivation to perform the observed behaviour.

Memory

Processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning.

1. Encoding

Conversion of sensory information into usable form so that it can be neurologically represented and stored in memory.

2. Storage

Retention of encoded information over time.

3. Retrieval

Recovery of stored information for use when needed.

Atkinson-Shiffirn multi-store model

Representation/explanation of memory in 3 separate stores; sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory.

1. Sensory information

The entry point of memory, new incoming memory sensory information is stored for a very brief moment.

Iconic memory (sensory info)

-Visual sensory memory for incoming visual info that stores visual images in their original sensory form.

-Lasts 1/3 of a second.

-Eg. blinking but still seeing the image after.

Echoic memory (sensory info)

-Auditory sensory memory for incoming auditory info that stores sounds in their original sensory form.

-Lasts 3-4 seconds.

-Eg. clapping hands and still hearing the sound for a brief moment.

2. Short-term memory

-Memory system with limited storage capacity, info is stored for a relatively short time; maintains info in conscious awareness.

Eg. reading this sentence right now.

3. Long-term memory (LTM)

Memory storage that holds a potentially unlimited amount of info for a very long time.

Explicit memory (LTM)

-Memory with awareness.

1. Episodic memory: personal experienced events (what, when, where).

2. Semantic memory: memory of facts and knowledge (quadratic formula).

Implicit memory (LTM)

-Memory without awareness.

1. Procedural memory: skills involved in particular tasks (driving a car).

2. Classically conditioned memory: conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli (reflex, fear, turning head to a sound).

Hippocampus

-Formation & encoding of new semantic & episodic memory.

-Ensures neurologically stable and long-lasting memories.

-Consolidation of long-term memories.

Location: under cerebral cortex (temporal lobe).

Size: 3.5cm long (sea-horse shaped).

Amygdala

-Processing/regulating emotional reactions.

-Recognising emotions (fear) in people’s facial expressions.

-Formation & consolidation of emotional memories.

Damage: unable to acquire classically conditioned response; cannot learn fear/danger.

Location: above & connected with hippocampus (both hemispheres).

Size: 1.5cm long.

Neocortex

-Interacts with hippocampus in formatting consolidation, storage & retrieval of long-term explicit memories.

-Memories are stored in ‘pieces’ (eg. names of brands). → when required, pieces of memories are reconstructed as a single memory.

Location/size: covers up 90% of cerebral cortex (both hemispheres).

Basal Ganglia

-Long-term implicit memories involving motor skills.

-Fluidity of movement.

-Habituation → process of growing accustomed to a situation/stimulus (decrease in responsiveness).

Damage: Parkinson’s disease, difficulty producing dopamine, Huntington’s disease.

Location: deep within brain ; extensive connections to neocortex.

Cerebellum

-Coordinates fire muscle movements.

-Regulates posture & balance.

-Contributes to perceptual & cognitive processes.

-Skilled sequences of movement.

Alzheimer’s disease (form of dementia)

-A neurodegenerative disorder characterised by gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, causing memory decline.

-Explicit episodic and semantic memories are primarily affected.

-It is not reversible, only medications to slow down the symptoms.

Aphantasia

-The absence of forming visual imagery in the mind.

-Due to weaker connections b/w visual cortex and back of the brain.

Hyperphantasia

-Condition involving an overabundance of visual imagery.

Mnemonics

-Technique used to assist with memory.

Acronyms

-Pronounceable words formed from the first letter of a group of words.

-Eg. NASA

Acrostics

-Remembering items of words by constructing phrases use the first letter of each words.

-Eg. Bad Cats Smell Dead Rats.

Methods of Loci

-Converting items into mental images and associating them with specific positions or locations.

Aboriginal people’s use of songlines

-Pairs vital info with navigational route, comprising a sequence of locations and significant features.