1945-1980

The first and last topics of each unit are just reviews so there are no note for them. These notes are based on Heimler History videos with some additions.

8.2 The Cold War

Cold War Emergence

• The Cold War emerged as tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union escalated after World War II.

• This period is characterized by a conflict marked by ideological differences rather than open warfare.

• The pivotal question centered on whether the world would embrace Soviet communism or democratic capitalism.

• The origins of this global struggle can be traced to the contrasting ideologies that took a definitive form immediately after World War II. The U.S. favored a world shaped by democratic values and capitalist economic systems whereas the Soviet Union promoted a communist ideology.

Strategies and Conflicts

As tensions grew, several critical episodes defined the era:

• Tensions and Mistrust

  • The mistrust between the U.S. and the Soviet Union stemmed all the way back to the Russian Revolution of 1917.

• The U.S. was staunchly against authoritarian communism and envisioned a world based on democratic capitalism.

• Mutual suspicion and distrust frequently surfaced over post-war settlements in Eastern Europe and the fate of Berlin.

• U.S. Response to Communist Expansion

  • In response to the perceived threat, the U.S. adopted a containment strategy with the aim of preventing the spread of communism.

  • Notable implementations of this strategy include the Truman Doctrine, pledging support to nations threatened by communism, and the Marshall Plan which provided financial aid to rebuild European countries and keep communism at bay.

• Confrontations and Alliances

  • The Berlin blockade by the Soviet Union prompted the Berlin Airlift, an American-led initiative to thwart a Soviet takeover.

  • On the alliances front, the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) represented a united military front to resist Soviet aggression.

  • In response, the Soviet’s created the Warsaw Pact, an alliance for communist nations in Eastern Europe.

• Nuclear Proliferation

  • The escalating arms race between the superpowers led to the development of advanced and powerful nuclear arsenals.

  • The sobering concept of mutual assured destruction became a deterrent against the actual use of these formidable weapons.

• Proxy Wars Unfold

  • The ideological conflict often manifested through proxy wars with each superpower backing opposite factions.

  • An instance of this was the Korean War, a direct consequence of the Truman administration’s policy of containment.

Korean War: Conflict and Containment

The Korean War was a direct consequence of ideological divisions and Cold War conflicts:

• Outbreak (1950):

• The invasion of South Korea by North Korean forces triggered US intervention under United Nations' auspices, leading to a significant military engagement on the Korean peninsula.

• War Progress:

• The conflict saw a dramatic shift in territorial control and brought Chinese forces into direct combat with US-led UN forces.

• General Douglas MacArthur played a prominent role, though his aggressive stance led to controversy and eventual dismissal.

The armistice in 1953 halted active combat, cementing Korea's division at the 38th parallel. The outcome was seen as a testament to the effectiveness of Truman's containment policy, as South Korea remained out of communist hands.

Truman's Leadership and the Cold War Dynamics

President Truman faced numerous challenges during his time in office. His moderate Democratic stance led to resistance from both sides of the political aisle. Despite these challenges, Truman was a trailblazer for civil rights:

• He tackled racial discrimination head-on by establishing the Committee on Civil Rights and desegregating the armed forces, becoming the first 20th-century president to take such actions. This led to opposition, notably from Southern Democrats and Republicans in Congress.

• The Election of 1948 proved to be a divisive time within the Democratic Party, but Truman managed to secure re-election against the odds.

Truman's ambitions for the nation were encapsulated in his Fair Deal program, through which he aimed to expand upon the legacy of the New Deal. He proposed sweeping domestic reforms including:

• Extending social security benefits.

• Raising the minimum wage.

• Establishing national health insurance.

• Providing more funding for education and advancing civil rights practices.

America's Transformation in International Relations

Post-WWII, the U.S. made a significant shift from its prior isolationist stance to take an active role in global affairs. In 1945, it joined the United Nations as a permanent member of the Security Council, solidifying its position on the world stage.

The Bretton Woods Conference (1944) was instrumental in shaping the post-war global economic landscape. This conference led to:

• The creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, institutions designed to facilitate international trade and aid in the reconstruction of war-torn countries.

The Cold War, an era marked by geopolitical tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, had its origins in both pre-existing hostilities and divergent ideologies. This period was characterized by:

• Conflicting visions for the future of Eastern Europe, as highlighted during the Yalta Conference (1945).

• The development and implementation of the Containment Policy, formulated by George Kennan, which shaped U.S. foreign policy decisions such as:

• The Truman Doctrine (1947), offering aid to Greece and Turkey.

• The Marshall Plan (1947), providing extensive financial assistance to Western Europe.

The Berlin Crisis marked a severe escalation in the Cold War when Stalin blockaded Berlin in 1948. Truman's decisive response—a massive airlift that sustained West Berlin—highlighted the severity of the superpower confrontation.

To address escalating security concerns, the U.S. spearheaded the formation of strategic alliances and passed key legislation:

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established in 1949 as a mutual defense pact among the U.S. and Western allies.

• In response, the Soviet Union created the Warsaw Pact.

• The National Security Act of 1947 led to the inception of the Department of Defense, the National Security Council (NSC), and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

These notes offer a comprehensive review of the historical context surrounding post-World War II developments in the United States, from economic prosperity to the Truman administration's domestic and foreign policies, as well as key events at the dawn of the Cold War.# US Foreign Policy Throughout the Cold War

Escalation of Nuclear Capabilities and Strategy

The Cold War era was marked by a significant arms race between the US and the Soviet Union. Key developments include:

• Atomic Bomb Monopoly Loss (1949):

• The balance of power shifted when the Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb in 1950, ending the US monopoly on nuclear weapons.

• NSC 68 Secret Report (1950):

• This pivotal report advocated for an unprecedented military buildup, suggesting that defense spending should account for up to 20% of the gross national product.

• Its primary goal was to deter any form of Soviet aggression, a clear reflection of the escalating tensions of the period.

The Korean War in the 1950s served as a real-world implementation of NSC 68's recommendations. It was during this conflict that the US tested its first hydrogen bomb, in 1952, further intensifying the arms race.

8.3 The Red Scare

The Red Scare - Post World War II

The period following World War II was marked by a resurgence of the Red Scare, a time characterized by heightened suspicion and anxiety over Soviet influence and the existence of communist sympathizers in the United States. This Red Scare of the 1940s and 50s was separate from the earlier Red Scare that occurred during World War I.

Battling Internal Communist Threats

Federal Measures and Labor Unions

• The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 came about in reaction to the surge of labor union strikes, significantly hampering the ability for workers to engage in strikes and advocate for their rights.

• Truman's Federal Employee Loyalty and Security Program, through an executive order, required civil servants to take loyalty oaths and submit to background checks to prove their dedication to the United States, thereby safeguarding the federal government from communist infiltration.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

• The HUAC's inception was driven by the pressure to eliminate communist elements from all walks of American life, with a sharp focus on the entertainment industry. The committee zealously pursued individuals in Hollywood, flagging the film industry as a potential haven for communist indoctrination.

Blacklisting and McCarthyism

• The Hollywood Ten became a symbol for the entertainment industry's clash with anti-communist fervor. These ten acclaimed directors faced Congress, refused to cooperate, and as retribution were blacklisted, or systematically denied employment.

• Senator Joseph McCarthy rose to infamy by capitalizing on the nation’s communist paranoia, alleging he had a list of known communists within the State Department. His accusations, later proven baseless, fostered an environment of suspicion and fear, giving rise to the term McCarthyism.

Espionage Fears: The Rosenberg Case

• Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were ensnared in a high-profile espionage trial, charged with conspiracy to pass atomic secrets to the Soviets. Their conviction and subsequent execution in 1953 rattled the nation and fueled the ongoing hysteria.

Influence and Consequences of the Red Scare

• Labor unions saw their powers and freedoms significantly curtailed, with members subjected to intense scrutinies and loyalty tests.

• Directors and actors once prominent in Hollywood were ousted and barred from working, their lives and careers irrevocably altered.

• At the international level, the Red Scare exacerbated the already tense relations between the US and the Soviet Union, contributing to the Cold War's escalation.

• The Red Scare not only shaped legislative priorities and national politics but also deeply affected the fabric of American society, fostering a climate where fear overshadowed freedom and distrust overshadowed dissent.

8.4 Economy After 1945

The Post-War Economic Surge

Post-World War II America experienced a wave of unprecedented economic growth. Here are several pivotal reasons:

• The increase in productivity was colossal during the war, laying a robust foundation for an economic surge.

• There was massive federal spending on infrastructure, most notably on the interstate highway system.

Veterans returning from the war were not left without support; they were bolstered by the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill). This vital piece of legislation aided them to:

• Attend college to gain higher education.

• Secure low-interest loans that bolstered housing acquisition.

• Start businesses, setting the stage for an entrepreneurial boost.

A Population Explosion

From 1945 to 1960, America witnessed a Baby Boom, where over 50 million people were added to the population. This had enormous implications. The suburban dream was fueled by:

• An escalated demand for housing and construction.

• The establishment of suburbs, underpinned by the growing prevalence of automobiles.

Migration and Transformation

The concept of suburban living transformed the American lifestyle. Enter Levittown, a cookie-cutter solution to housing, spurring debates over uniformity.

Suburbanization wasn't the only trend changing the face of America. The Interstate Highway Act of 1956 was a game-changer that:

• Birthed fast-moving highways, supercharging the move to suburbs.

• Led to a demographic shift with a mass exodus from cities, tipping political power to new regions like the South and the West.

The Allure of the Sun Belt States

Migratory patterns showed a significant shift toward the Sun Belt states owing to several factors:

• A preference for warmer climates among those weary of the northern chill.

• The new highway system that streamlined interstate travel.

• Opportunities mushroomed in the defense industry, which was burgeoning due to the Cold War tensions.

To encapsulate, America's post-war economic and demographic landscape underwent drastic changes due to:

• Increased productivity and federal investments in infrastructure.

• The Baby Boom setting off a housing demand wave and the rise of suburbs.

• The interstate highways catalyzing suburban migration and political power shifts.

The Economic Landscape in Post-War America

After World War II, there was significant concern about the American economy potentially collapsing. One particularly worrisome aspect involved the reintegration of 15 million soldiers into civilian life and fears of a possible resurgence of the Great Depression. However, a landmark The rise of the United States to economic prosperity was one of the most significant outcomes of the post-WWII era. The country amassed significant savings during the war, which led to increased purchasing power afterward. The U.S. emerged as the globe's wealthiest nation and saw its middle class expand dramatically, especially in the 1950s, exceeding 50% of the population.

The growth of the American economy also hinged on specific key factors:

• Defense spending was crucial during this period, especially since the onset of the Cold War necessitated substantial investment in military capabilities.

• Worker productivity saw an upswing. Technological advancements, alongside the improvement in the educational attainment of the workforce, played a significant role in this growth spurt.

• The Sun Belt, a region spanning the Southeast and Southwest of the U.S., witnessed significant growth due to a combination of factors such as a warmer climate, lower taxes, and the concentration of defense-related jobs.

8.5 Changes in American Culture After 1945

The Genesis of Mass Culture in Post-War America

• Rise of mass culture post-1945

• Pressure to conform during McCarthyism

• Influence of television in 90% of American households

• Dominance of few networks in TV content

• Advertising industry thriving on increased disposable income

• Introduction of credit cards enabling living beyond means

• Rock and roll music as anthem for younger generation

The Beat Generation: Voices of Dissent

• Pockets of society pushed back against the growing conformity.

• The Beat Generation was the embodiment of this rebellion, with beatniks — poets and artists who promoted a life of spontaneity and freedom. 

• J.D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye" critiqued the "American Dream."

8.6 Civil Rights Movement

The Dawn of Civil Rights Advocacy

Following the end of the Civil War, promises were made to African Americans that encompassed constitutional amendments aimed at ensuring voting rights and equal protection under the law. Unfortunately, these commitments were largely unfulfilled due to:

• The rise of Jim Crow laws that mandated racial segregation in all public facilities, creating separate but supposedly equal accommodations for blacks and whites.

• Implementation of voter suppression tactics such as poll taxes and literacy tests, which effectively barred many African Americans from voting.

• Supreme Court decisions that solidified these practices, most infamously the Plessy v. Ferguson case which upheld state laws requiring separate railway cars for blacks and whites under the doctrine of "separate but equal."

The Fight for Justice and Equality

As civil rights activism gathered momentum, activists urged the government to live up to the promises of equality. President Truman took significant steps by:

• Issuing Executive Order 9981 in 1948, which banned segregation in the armed forces. However, this order was not fully enforced until the Korean War.

• Forming a committee on civil rights in 1946, which went on to recommend a series of anti-discrimination measures including desegregating the armed forces, abolishment of poll taxes, and federal protection against lynching.

• Urging the U.S. Congress to enact laws in line with these recommendations. This eventually led to Congress proposing the 24th Amendment in 1962, which abolished the poll tax in federal elections.

The Supreme Court also played a pivotal role during this era, particularly through the Brown v. Board of Education case, which challenged the legality of racial segregation in schools:

• The 1954 unanimous ruling declared that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," directly overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.

• This monumental decision mandated that schools integrate "with all deliberate speed." However, it met with considerable opposition which manifested in resistance and exploitation of legal loopholes by several states.

In the South, the resistance was staunch and public. The infamous "Southern Manifesto" criticized the Supreme Court's decision as a "gross abuse of power." Southern legislators banded together to contest the ruling, leading to some states even closing public schools rather than desegregating them. The confrontation escalated to a point where, in 1957, the Governor of Arkansas employed the National Guard to bar integration at Little Rock High School. This necessitated President Eisenhower to dispatch federal troops to uphold the rights of black students and to enforce integration.

While the civil rights movement of the 1940s and 1950s accomplished critical advancements, the progress was often countered by substantial opposition, culminating in only modest strides towards desegregation and equality, particularly over the next decade.

8.7 The United States as a World Power

The Wave of Decolonization

Following World War II, a massive movement of decolonization swept across the globe. While European powers had been establishing colonies since the 16th century, major empires in Africa, Asia, and Latin America began to disintegrate post-war. In response:

• The US and the Soviet Union engaged in a geopolitical chess game, each endeavoring to shape these newly independent states according to their own ideologies: democratic capitalism and authoritarian communism.

In Latin America:

• Guatemala (1954):

  • A socialist government challenging US business interests prompted the US to stage a coup.

  • The CIA trained insurgents to depose President Jacobo Arbenz, who had nationalized lands owned by the American United Fruit Company, resulting in a pro-US military dictatorship.

• Cuba:

  • Initially under a military rule siding with the US, it experienced a shift when Fidel Castro, leading to a communist regime in 1959.

  • The Eisenhower Administration backed the ill-fated Bay of Pigs invasion, ultimately pushing Cuba closer to the Soviet Union and sparking the Cuban Missile Crisis.

In the Middle East:

• Iran (1953): Concerned with the plans to nationalize Iran's oil industry, the CIA facilitated the overthrow of the democratically elected Prime Minister, strengthening pro-US leadership under the Shah.

In Asia:

• Vietnam:

  • Vietnam's division into North (under communist Ho Chi Minh) and South (remaining democratic) served as a battlefield for US anti-communist policies.

• With the domino theory as justification, President Eisenhower committed substantial aid to South Vietnam to ward off communism.

In China:

• Civil War in China:

• A fierce battle ensued between nationalists, led by Chiang Kai-shek, and Chinese communists led by Mao Zedong. The US extended its support to China under the Lend-Lease Act during the war.

• Rise of Communist China (1949):

• The proclamation of China as a communist country under Mao changed the geopolitical landscape. However, the US did not formally recognize communist China until three decades later, in 1979.

Internal reactions to the spread of communism included:

• Chiang Kai-shek's Defeat:

• After his defeat, Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan and continued to assert his rule over China, leading to political backlash in the US against the Truman administration.

Warnings from Eisenhower

President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in his farewell address, delivered profound insights:

• Military-Industrial Complex: He stressed the dangers of the close relationship between the military establishment and the defense industry. Eisenhower cautioned against allowing this entity to exert undue influence over national policy.

Consequences and Legacy of Containment

The political and military actions taken during the Korean War had lasting effects:

• MacArthur's Controversial Actions:

• His dismissal stemmed from a serious disagreement with President Truman over war strategy. While MacArthur wanted to expand the war, Truman's focus on containment prevailed.

• Assessment and Legacy:

• Truman's strategy was later deemed successful in preventing the fall of South Korea to communist forces. Criticisms of Truman being too lenient on communism are overshadowed by many historians' support for his approach.

The heightened conflict also had profound implications for US defense spending:

• Impact on US Defense Spending:

• The NSC 68 policy, influenced heavily by the Korean War, resulted in a dramatic increase in defense expenditure, which reflected a broader militarization of US foreign policy during the Cold War.

Eisenhower's Foreign Policy

Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Cold War strategy was marked by a more aggressive stance under Secretary of State John Foster Dulles. They promoted brinksmanship instead of containment and sought to deter Soviet aggression by amassing nuclear arsenals, while still engaging in diplomacy with programs like Atom's for Peace. However, events like the launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik and the U-2 spy plane incident put strain on US-Soviet relations.

In a rapidly decolonizing world, the US and Soviet Union vied for influence, often backing disparate nationalist movements. The CIA played a significant role during this era, conducting covert operations to install pro-US governments, notably in Iran and Guatemala.

These comprehensive notes encapsulate the Eisenhower administration's impact on the 1950s, highlighting both domestic policies and global strategies amidst the backdrop of the Cold War and societal shifts. Students can gain a deep understanding of this pivotal decade in American history.# The Cold War Legacy of President Eisenhower

Eisenhower's approach to foreign policy during the Cold War era left an indelible mark on global politics. His decisions had far-reaching effects on several crucial geographic regions, including the Middle East, Latin America, and Asia. The core of Eisenhower's strategy was to contain communism, but this often resulted in contentious interventions and the establishment of alliances that proved to be controversial over time.

Middle East Dynamics

• Alignment with Non-Democratic Countries

• In a strategic counter to communism, the U.S. aligned with certain Middle Eastern nations that were non-democratic. While this achieved short-term goals against communist expansion, it sparked a long-standing resentment among the local populations of these countries.

• Suez Crisis:

• The nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egypt's President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, angered traditional Western powers and Israel. Despite international uproar, the Eisenhower administration stood its ground, criticized the retaliatory attack, and played a pivotal role in resolution. However, Eisenhower responded with the issuance of the Eisenhower Doctrine, which pledged economic and military assistance to Middle Eastern nations facing communist aggression.

• OPEC Formation:

• The year 1960 marked the creation of OPEC, an essential move by oil-rich countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela to exert more control over the oil market, which had significant geopolitical and economic implications.

8.8 - Vietnam War: Causes and Effects

Geographic and Political Context

• Following decolonization, Vietnam was divided into North and South.

  • North Vietnam: Communist, led by Ho Chi Minh.

  • South Vietnam: Democratic, with strong ties to the United States.

Eisenhower's Domino Theory

• Definition: A theory positing that if South Vietnam fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow, creating a large communist bloc in the Pacific.

• Implication: U.S. foreign policy aimed at containing communism to prevent the domino effect.

Eisenhower to Johnson: Increasing U.S. Involvement

• Initially supporting France, the U.S. increased involvement post-French withdrawal.

• Kennedy and then Johnson escalated U.S. military presence, with the infamous Gulf of Tonkin Incident granting Johnson broad powers to escalate the war functionally.

Impact on American Society

• The war deepened national divisions, between hawks (pro-war) and doves (anti-war).

• Diverted funds and attention from the Great Society programs, tarnishing Johnson's presidency.

• Sparked significant anti-war protests, especially on college campuses.

Emergence of New Movements

• Second Wave Feminism: Sparked by Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique, leading to the foundation of the National Organization for Women (NOW) and campaigning for an Equal Rights Amendment.

• Gay Rights Movement: Catalyzed by the Stonewall Riots in 1969, marking the beginning of the modern movement for LGBT rights.

• Other Movements: Include causes for Latinos, Native Americans, and Asian Americans, each advocating for social and economic equality.

U.S. Involvement Under Kennedy and Johnson

• Kennedy supported the domino theory and sent military advisers to South Vietnam, while officially not engaging in combat.

• Lyndon B. Johnson escalated U.S. involvement following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, leading to significant military action.

• Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: Congress & The House of Representatives granted the president authority to use military force to protect American interests without an official declaration of war from Congress. This was against the idea of checks and balances.

Military Engagement and Public Debate

• The resolution led to debates over the executive branch's power in conducting foreign policy and military action without full Congressional approval.

Escalation and Opposition

• 1965: American troop numbers in Vietnam rose to nearly 200,000, doubling two years later.

• The North Vietnamese forces proved to be formidable adversaries, challenging U.S. military expectations.

The Credibility Gap

• Discrepancies between Johnson administration's positive portrayal of the war efforts and the harsh realities broadcasted on television led to public distrust.

Move Towards De-escalation

• Tet Offensive: A significant North Vietnamese attack that, despite heavy casualties on both sides, did not lead to a strategic advantage for the U.S.

• A major surprise attack by North Vietnam that contradicted U.S. government claims of nearing victory, leading to increased anti-war sentiment.

• Post-Tet Offensive, Johnson halted escalation, and Nixon aimed to reduce U.S. involvement through "Vietnamization."

Vietnamization: Nixon's strategy to withdraw American troops while supporting South Vietnam with funds and munitions.

Key Terms and Figures

Impact and Legacy

• The Vietnam War deeply affected American society, fueling anti-war protests and contributing to a widespread "credibility gap."

• The military engagement highlighted the limitations of U.S. foreign policy and military power in achieving its objectives.

• The concept of Vietnamization reflected a shift towards reducing direct military involvement while still attempting to influence outcomes indirectly.

John F. Kennedy (JFK) Presidency Highlights

• Election of 1960: JFK vs. Richard Nixon. Notable for the first televised debates. Kennedy's appearance gave him an edge over Nixon.

• First Catholic President: Broke religious barriers in U.S. politics.

  • New Frontier Program:

  • Federal funding for education

  • Healthcare programs

  • Civil rights advancements

  • Faced Congressional resistance, limiting domestic achievements.

• Space Race:

  • Kennedy advocated for landing a man on the moon.

  • Led to increased spending which boosted the economy.

• Peace Corps: Established to send Americans to assist in underdeveloped countries.

• Cold War Continuation:

• Alliance for Progress: Aimed for Latin American economic development.

• Bay of Pigs Invasion: Failed attempt to overthrow Castro, leading to Soviet-Cuban relations strengthening.

• Cuban Missile Crisis: Brink of nuclear war, resolved by diplomatic negotiations.

• Flexible Response:

  • Shift from sole reliance on nuclear arsenal to a mix of military options.

  • Introduction of the Green Berets, specialized in unconventional warfare.

🔹 Kennedy's Administration was cut short by his assassination in 1963.

Kennedy and Civil Rights

• Kennedy's Presidency:

  • Faced with slow progress on civil rights.

  • Was hesitant to address civil rights aggressively due to a narrow victory in 1960.

• Grassroots Movements:

  • Kept pressure for change, notable events include:

  • Sit-ins in Greensboro, North Carolina.

  • Freedom Rides by Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) to challenge segregation in bus facilities, met with violence including the bus being firebombed.

Freedom Rides: Efforts by civil rights activists to end segregation in interstate bus facilities through nonviolent direct action.

Key Events Under Kennedy

• James Meredith & Old Miss:

• James Meredith, an African American and Air Force veteran, was escorted by federal troops to register at the University of Mississippi after facing violent protests.

• Birmingham Protests:

• Martin Luther King Jr. and other activists were arrested during nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama.

• King writes "Letter from a Birmingham Jail", emphasizing nonviolent protest and civil disobedience.

8.9 Lyndon Johnson The Great Society

Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) Presidency Highlights

• War on Poverty: Introduced programs like the Head Start and Job Corps to combat poverty.

• Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965:
  Eliminated nationality-based quotas, leading to increased immigration from Asia and Latin America.

• 1964 Election: LBJ vs. Barry Goldwater, resulting in a landslide victory for Johnson.

• Great Society Initiatives:

• Civil Rights Advancements: Great Society pushed for civil rights, being more progressive than previous administrations.

Criticisms & Challenges

• Cost & Efficiency Concerns: Critics argued that the Great Society programs were too expensive and inefficient.

• Conservative Backlash: Rise of new conservative figures who opposed the expansive welfare state envisioned by LBJ and JFK before him.

This guide underscores the transformative years of the 1960s under JFK and LBJ, marked by strides in civil rights, the progression of the Cold War, and the reshaping of American political and social landscapes.

The Great Society

• Johnson became president after Kennedy’s assassination

• Johnson’s plan was an meant to be an extension of FDR’s New Deal

• It was supposed to held deal with poverty

• A democratic majority in congress helped The Great Society’s programs be greenlit and be funded

• Educated the poor

• Despite being expansive, it had limited success

  • It was hard to break the cycles of poverty

• Medicare (60+) and Medicaid (the poor) was introduced

• A lot of government money was spent on the Vietnam War, leaving little for The Great Society

• Abolished immigration quotas

American Liberalism

• Liberalism in America was at a peak

• America was united under a fear of communism

• They believed government intervention was necessary

Warren Court Cases

• Important court cases were featured in the Warren Court

• Warren Court was named after Earl Warren

  • Gideon Vs Wainwright

    • If a person is impoverished and cannot afford a lawyer the state must provide one

    • Right to legal counsel

  • Griswold and Connecticut 

    • Laws banning birth control were unconstitutional

  • Engel Vs Vitale

    • The Regents prayer was a state mandated prayer that was required in schools

    • This was unconstitutional as it violated separation of church and state

  • Baker Vs Carr

    • Voting District lines must be redrawn every few years to accuracy reflect populations

    • Old lines did not reflect population changes, and therefore were unfair

8.10 Civil Rights Movement:

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955)

• Initiated by Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her seat.

  • Outcome: End to segregation on public transportation in Montgomery, and the emergence of Martin Luther King Jr. as a key leader.

• Sit-in Movement:

  • Tactics: Occupying restaurant counters designated for white customers to demand service.

  • Results: National attention, mass arrests, and eventual policy changes.

Key Figures and Strategies

• Martin Luther King Jr.

  • Advocated for non-violent protest, inspired by Gandhi's campaign in India.

  • Became a leading voice for civil rights through peaceful protests and civil disobedience.

• Malcolm X and Black Panthers

  • Represented a more militant branch of the civil rights movement.

  • Advocated for black separatism and self-defense against racial oppression.

  • Black Panthers: Founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, emphasizing the need for African American self-rule and was more militant than other parts of the movement.

Radicalization of the Civil Rights Movement

• Watts Riots, 1965: A key event indicating growing frustration with the slow pace of change.

• Malcolm X and Black Nationalism: Advocated for black nationalism, self-improvement, and racial separatism. Assassinated in 1965.

Government Response and Legislation

• Civil Rights Act of 1964: Made discrimination based on race, religion, or sex illegal.

• Voting Rights Act of 1965:

  • Ended racial discrimination in voting.

  • Outlawed literacy tests and poll taxes.

  • Allowed federal oversight in regions with historically low black voter turnout.

• Landmark Supreme Court Cases:

  • Loving vs. Virginia (1967): Invalidated laws against interracial marriage.

Legacy and Continued Struggle

• King's Assassination (1968) marked the end of a notable era in civil rights movements but also highlighted that the struggle was far from over.

• Race Riots: Post-1968, (MLK Assassination) numerous cities across the U.S. experienced race riots, indicating persistent racial tensions despite legislative wins.

This era of the civil rights movement underscored a fundamental shift in American society, leading to significant legislative and societal changes. While notable progress was made, the continued efforts beyond the 1960s remind us of the ongoing journey towards equality and justice.

8.11 Civil Rights Movement and its Inspirations

Women's Movement

• Historical Context:

  • Seneca Falls Convention: Pinnacle of the 19th-century movement.

  • Women's suffrage: Recognized early in the 20th century.

  • World Wars: Women filled roles typically reserved for men, yet equality was elusive.

  • Cultural Norms: 1950s propelled the notion of women belonging at home, focusing on domestic bliss.

• Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963):
  Unveils the dissatisfaction of suburban housewives, challenging the assumption that women preferred domestic roles over professional or political engagement.

  • Over a million copies sold by 1964.

• National Organization for Women (NOW):

  • Founded by Friedan in 1966, employing civil rights strategies.

  • Aimed for professional equality and pay.

• Key Publications and Milestones:

  • Ms. Magazine by Gloria Steinem: Furthered the dialog on women's rights.

  • Title IX (1972): Prohibited gender discrimination in education, significantly supporting women's sports.

• Equal Rights Amendment (ERA):

  • Sought to constitutionally guarantee equality but was obstructed by Phyllis Schlafly's STOP ERA campaign.

  • Phyllis Schlafly was a conservative, misogynistic woman. She opposed feminism.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 

• Signed by President Johnson, making segregation illegal in all public facilities and establishing the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

• Effectively banned discrimination in employment based on race, religion, sex, and national origin.

Voting Rights Movement

• 24th Amendment: Outlawed poll taxes, a method used to disenfranchise African American voters.

• Freedom Summer of 1964: Focus on voter registration in Mississippi, where only 5% of eligible African Americans were registered to vote.

• Selma to Montgomery Marches: Highlighted by violence met by peaceful protesters, leading to federal intervention.

• Voting Rights Act of 1965: Marked a significant victory by banning literacy tests and other barriers to African American voting.

Latino Rights Movement

• Key Figures: Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta

• Formed the United Farm Workers in 1962 to champion migrant workers' rights.

• Led a successful nationwide grape boycott, achieving wage increases by 1970.

American Indian Movement

• American Indian Movement (1968): Aimed to reclaim heritage and achieve self-determination.

• Alcatraz Occupation: A notable act asserting treaty rights, though federal pressure eventually ended the 19-month occupation.

  • Failure

• Self-Determination Act (1975): Granted significant control over Indian lands, education, and law enforcement back to American Indians.

🌈 Gay Liberation Movement

• Stonewall Inn Riot (1969): Marked a pivotal resistance against anti-gay laws, sparking organized protests and advocacy for rights.

• Outcomes: In the 1970s, homosexuality's categorization shifted from a mental disorder to a recognized sexual orientation.

8.12 Youth Culture in the 1960s

Vietnam War and Youth Conflict 

• Young Americans for Freedom (YAF)

  • A conservative organization supporting America's involvement in Vietnam to contain communism.

• Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

  • A group opposing the Vietnam War, emphasizing participatory democracy and direct government action.

  • Port Huron Statement: A manifesto by the SDS highlighting the importance of democracy and opposing efforts to stop global communism.

• Why College Students Cared

  • Fear of being drafted after graduation into what they considered an immoral war.

  • Led to nationwide anti-war demonstrations.

• Kent State Massacre (1970)

  • Following days of protests against Vietnam War escalation, National Guard was called in.

  • Outcome: 4 students killed, 10 wounded when guardsmen opened fire during a skirmish involving rock-throwing by students.

Counter Culture Movement 🌸

• The Counter-culture movement was a movement among young people aimed at dropping societal restraints and overturning norms through:

  • Rebellious clothing styles

  • Experimental drug use

  • Iconic Image: The Hippie

  • Known for rejecting traditional American culture through distinct fashion and lifestyle.

• Haight Ashbury District

  • A hub for hippies in San Francisco promoting communal living based on countercultural ideals, drug use, and era-specific music.

• Drug Use and Music

  • Marijuana and LSD were consumed widely, believed to be essential to the hippie mindset.

  • Music was informal, contrasting sharply with the formally trained artists of the 1950s.

  • Sexual Revolution

  • Encouraged casual sex and multiple partners, critiquing the monogamous norms of the previous generation.

• Music and Informality

  • Artists like Bob Dylan, despite unconventional voices, became key figures in the countercultural music scene.

• Woodstock Music Festival (1969)

  • Almost 400,000 attendees, highlighting the peak of the counterculture movement with performances by artists like Jimi Hendrix and Joan Baez.

• Decline of the Counter Culture

  • The movement eventually fizzled out in the 1970s, partly due to the physical and mental toll of sustained drug use.

Key Takeaways

8.13 - Environmental Policies

Global Context: Oil Crisis

• OPEC Formation

  • Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) formed by oil-producing Arab nations.

  • Aimed to control oil prices by regulating export quantities.

  • Coordinated and unified oil prices to secure fair and stable prices for the various producing countries.

1973 Oil Crisis

• Significant Events: Reduction of oil exports to America and price hikes.

• Consequences: Dramatic increase in fuel prices in the U.S. and significant shortages.

• Impact on U.S. Policy

  • Realization that U.S. energy resources were dependent on volatile regions.

  • Prompted discussions on alternative energy sources including nuclear energy.

U.S. Domestic Environmental Policy

• Alternative Energy Debate

• Nuclear Energy Considerations

  • Benefits: Abundance of uranium, no greenhouse gas emissions during processing.

• Three Mile Island accident in 1979, raising safety concerns.

  • Three Mile Island: Site of a partial nuclear meltdown in 1979, which heightened public fear of nuclear energy's safety risks.

• Environmental Movement Momentum

• Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" (1962).

  • Exposed issues with DDT (pesticide) use.

• First Earth Day celebration in 1970.

• Establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

  • Created in 1970 by President Nixon

  • Goal was to manage pollution and oversee regulation of polluting industries

• Clean Air Act

  • Aimed at reducing air pollution nationwide

  • EPA took over regulatory responsibilities

• Environmental Legislation and Awareness

  • Public Response to Environmental Degradation

  • Heightened by incidents like the Cuyahoga River catching fire due to pollution.

  • Demand for Environmental Protection

  • Led to the creation of the EPA and enactment of the Clean Air Act for national scale pollution control.

Key Takeaways:

• Oil Dependency and Environmental Policy: The 1973 oil crisis underscored the U.S. vulnerability due to its dependency on foreign oil, leading to a reevaluation of energy policies.

• Rise of Environmental Consciousness: Major incidents, influential publications, and public demand for environmental protection initiated a strong environmental movement, leading to significant policy changes like the establishment of the EPA and the Clean Air Act.

8.14 Rise of Conservatism in America

During the period from 1945 to 1980, the US witnessed significant liberal advances such as Lyndon Johnson's Great Society program and the Women's Liberation Movement. However, these developments triggered a conservative backlash that culminated in the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. This guide explores the roots and manifestations of this conservative movement.

Roots of Conservative Backlash

• Cultural Shifts: The period saw seismic shifts in American society, characterized by:

  • Street protests against the Vietnam War

  • Changes in the traditional family structure due to the women's movement

  • Civil Rights advancements, unsettling to many southern, white conservatives

• Conservatism: A political and social philosophy promoting traditional institutions and values.

Emergence of Conservative Groups

• Young Americans for Freedom: A conservative college student group instrumental in Barry Goldwater's 1964 presidential campaign, introducing the term "New Right".

• John Birch Society: Advocated for limited government and anti-communism, spinning conspiracy theories, including opposition to water fluoridation.

• William F. Buckley and The National Review: Represented moderate conservatism, denouncing more radical elements like the John Birch Society.

  • The New Right: Refers to a coalition of conservatives opposing liberalism, valuing religious beliefs, and adhering to transition gender roles

Rise of the Religious Right

• Formation and Beliefs:

  • Sparked by the Roe v. Wade decision in 1973, which legalized abortion.

  • Led by figures like Jerry Falwell, who founded the Moral Majority, and James Dobson with his "Focus on the Family" radio program.

• Key Issues:

  • Advocated for prayer in schools

  • Opposed the expansion of gay rights

National Events Influencing Conservatism

• Economic Turmoil:

  • The 1970s oil crisis and stagflation leading to a recession.

  • Failed government interventions decreased public confidence in governmental problem-solving.

• Watergate Scandal:

  • The scandal involving Richard Nixon's re-election committee led to a further decrease in government trust.

Conservative vs. Liberal Clashes

• Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): Failed ratification due to conservative efforts led by figures like Phyllis Schlafly.

• Affirmative Action Controversies:

  • Led to resentment among conservative whites.

  • Noteworthy Supreme Court Case: Bakke vs. University of California (1978), ruled that racial quotas in college admissions violated the 14th Amendment, though race could still be considered as a factor.