8.1 Truman and the beginning of The Cold War (1945 - 1953)

The end of World War II raised two major issues:

1. Survival of combatants and rebuilding of war-torn countries

2. Political and economic shape of the new world and formation of new political alliances

• The Cold War was a power struggle between the two leading political-economic systems, capitalism and communism

• The major powers, United States and Soviet Union, were the two new superpowers, but their ideologies made them enemies.

• Truman's Foreign Policy:

  1. Differences between Soviet and American goals became clearer after the war

  2. Truman Doctrine and Containment Policy to prevent spread of communism

  3. Marshall Plan - sent $12 billion to Europe to help rebuild its economy and promote economic growth

  4. Formed NATO with Canada and Western European countries in 1949.

• Berlin Crisis in 1948:

  1. Germany was divided into 4 sectors after the war

  2. Berlin was also divided into 4 sectors

  3. The three Western Allies merged their sectors and planned to bring the country into the Western economy

  4. Soviet response - imposed a blockade on Berlin

  5. Truman ordered airlifts to keep the Western portion supplied with food and fuel

  6. The blockade continued for close to a year and was a political liability for the Soviets, who eventually gave it up.

8.2 McCarthyism

Red Scare and Anti-Communism in America

• After World War I, anticommunism swept America during the Red Scare.

• Truman ordered investigations of 3 million federal employees in search of "security risks."

• Those found to have a potential Achilles’ heel (association with "known communists" or "moral" weaknesses) were dismissed without a hearing.

• Alger Hiss, former State Department official, was found guilty of consorting with a communist spy.

• Fear of the "enemy within" began to spread.

• The Screen Actors Guild attempted to purge its own communists.

Rise of Joseph McCarthy

• In 1950, McCarthy claimed to have a list of over 200 known communists working for the State Department.

• He led a campaign of innuendo that ruined the lives of thousands of innocent people.

• McCarthy held years of hearings with regard to subversion, not just in the government, but in education and the entertainment industry.

• Industries created lists of those tainted by these charges, called blacklists.

• Eisenhower was worried about McCarthy and refused to speak against him.

Downfall of McCarthy

• McCarthy accused the Army of harboring communists and finally chose too powerful a target.

• The Army fought back hard, with help from Edward R. Murrow’s television show, and made McCarthy look foolish in the Army-McCarthy hearings.

• The public turned its back on McCarthy, and the era of McCarthyism ended.

• Public distrust and fear of communism remained.

8.3 Truman’s Domestic Policy and the Election of 1948

The End of War and its Effects on the Economy

• The end of war led to the end of wartime production (Jeeps, airplanes, guns, bombs, and uniforms)

• Businesses started laying off employees, leading to a rise in unemployment levels

• People started spending more, causing prices to rise, with an inflation rate of 20% in 1946

• The poor and unemployed were hit the hardest

• Truman offered New Deal-style solutions but was met with conservatism in American politics

Deals offered by Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, and Harry Truman

• Square Deal: Theodore Roosevelt promised to regulate business and restore competition

• First New Deal: Franklin Roosevelt focused on immediate public relief and recovery of banks

• Second New Deal: Franklin Roosevelt addressed shortcomings of the First New Deal and responded to changing political climate

• Fair Deal: Harry Truman extended New Deal vision and provided provisions for WWII veteran reintegration into society (e.g. G.I. Bill)

The Rise of New Conservatism

• Antiunionism emerged

• Strike in essential industries (coal miners) led to layoffs, tensions rose

• Truman seized mines when settlement couldn't be reached, which alienated labor

• Threatened to draft railroad strikers, further alienating labor and one of the core constituencies of the Democratic coalition

Civil Rights and Truman's Alienation

• Truman pursued a civil rights agenda, but upset many voters (especially in the South)

• Convened President's Committee on Civil Rights, issued reports calling for end to segregation and poll taxes, more aggressive enforcement of antilynching laws

• Issued executive orders forbidding racial discrimination in federal hiring, desegregating Armed Forces

• Advances in civil rights provoked an outbreak of racism in the South

Anger among Core Democratic Constituencies

• Labor, consumers, Southerners all upset with Truman

• Republicans take control of 80th Congress in 1946 midterm elections

• Truman's popularity receives boost from conservative Republican-dominated Congress

• Passes anti-labor acts, Taft-Hartley Act restricts labor rights, gives government power to intervene in strikes

• Rebukes Truman's efforts to pass health care reform, aid schools, farmers, elderly, disabled, promote civil rights for Black people

Truman's Re-election Victory

• Truman trails chief opponent, Thomas Dewey, in election

• Makes brilliant political move by recalling the conservative Congress and challenging them to enact their platform

• Congress meets for two weeks and does not pass significant legislation

• Truman goes on grueling public appearance campaign deriding the "do-nothing" 80th Congress

• Wins re-election, coattails carry Democratic majority into Congress

8.4 The Korean War

Introduction:

• The Korean War began in June of 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea.

• The U.S. took swift countermeasures, intending to repel the invasion but later trying to reunify Korea.

• U.S. troops attacked North Korea under the umbrella of the United Nations, which led to China's entry into the war.

• U.S. Involvement:

  • Truman's Early Decisions: Truman decided to attempt a reunification of Korea after early military successes.

  • China's Entry: China entered the war, pushing American and South Korean troops back to near the original border.

  • MacArthur's Recommendation: U.S. commander Douglas MacArthur recommended an all-out confrontation with China.

  • Truman's Decision: Truman decided against MacArthur's recommendation, thinking a war with China would be imprudent.

  • MacArthur's Firing: MacArthur started criticizing the president publicly, which led to his firing for insubordination.

• Political Impact:

  • MacArthur's Popularity: MacArthur was very popular in the U.S., and his firing hurt Truman politically.

  • Peace Talks: Peace talks began soon after, but the war dragged on for two more years.

  • 1952 Presidential Election: The Republicans chose Dwight D. Eisenhower, a war hero, in the 1952 presidential election.

  • Truman's Unpopularity: Truman was unpopular, and America was ready for a change.

  • Eisenhower's Victory: Eisenhower easily beat Democratic challenger Adlai Stevenson.

8.5 The Eisenhower years (1953 - 1961)

The 1950s: A Time of Conformity

Societal Values:

• Consensus of values across much of America

• Americans believed in the superiority of their country

• Communism was perceived as evil and a threat to be stopped

• The good life was defined as having a decent job, a suburban home, and access to modern conveniences (consumerism)

G.I. Bill of Rights:

• Serviceman's Readjustment Act enacted in 1944

• Provided allowance for educational and living expenses for returning soldiers and veterans

• Helped many Americans achieve the American dream

• Stimulated postwar economic growth by providing low-cost loans for homes, farms, or small businesses

Civil Rights Movement:

• Built on the advances of the 1940s

• Met violent resistance

Economic Recessions:

• Era plagued by frequent economic recessions

Spiritual Unrest:

• Emergence of Beat poetry and novels (e.g. "Howl," On the Road)

• Teen movies (e.g. Blackboard Jungle, The Wild One, Rebel Without a Cause)

• Rock 'n' Roll music (Elvis Presley, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry)

Domestic Politics in the 1950s

• Eisenhower took office with intentions of imposing conservative values on the expanding federal government

• Goals included balancing the budget, reducing federal spending and easing business regulation

• Military buildup for the Cold War prevented major cuts to the military budget

• Popularity of New Deal programs and circumstances required increasing Social Security recipients and benefits

• Started development of the Interstate Highway System, which promoted tourism and suburban development at high cost

• Only balanced the federal budget three times in eight years

• Domestic issues involving minorities:

  • Eisenhower's "termination" policy aimed to liquidate reservations and end federal support for Native Americans

  • Policy failed and was stopped in the 60s, leading to depletion and impoverishment of some tribes

• Civil rights movement had landmark events:

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"

  • Eisenhower personally disapproved of segregation but opposed rapid change, resulting in southern resistance

  • Supported the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960, strengthening voting rights and punishments for crimes against Blacks

  • Montgomery bus boycott (1955) led to Martin Luther King Jr's national prominence and the integration of city buses

  • King encouraged peaceful protests, leading to the 1960 Greensboro sit-in movement against segregation

America Versus the Communists

Eisenhower Administration Cold War Policy

• Policy of Containment:

  • Rebranded as "Liberation" to sound more intimidating

  • Threat of freeing Eastern Europe from Soviet control

• Massive Retaliation:

  • Threat of nuclear attack if Soviets dared to challenge US

• Deterrence:

  • Soviet fear of massive retaliation prevents challenges to US

  • Leads to arms race

  • Knowledge of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) prevents deployment of nuclear weapons

• Brinksmanship:

  • Escalation of confrontations with Soviet Union towards war

• Domino Theory:

  • Spread of communism had to be checked in Southeast Asia

  • South Vietnam falling to communism would lead to quick fall of surrounding nations

Tensions During the Decade

• Cold War tensions remained high throughout the decade

• Death of Joseph Stalin:

  • Eisenhower hoped for improvement in American-Soviet relations

  • Initially, new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev offered hope

• Soviet Client States:

  • Khrushchev's "peaceful coexistence" message taken as sign of weakness

  • Rebellions in Poland and Hungary

  • Soviet crushing of uprisings returns US-Soviet relations to Stalin Era

• Heightened Anxieties:

  • Soviet advancements in nuclear arms and space flight

  • US creates and funds NASA in response to Soviet advancements

8.6 Third World Politics

World War II and the Third World

• Europe's overseas empires broke up after World War II

• Numerous countries in Africa, Asia, and South America gained independence from European domination and became known as the Third World

• America and the Soviet Union sought to bring Third World countries into their sphere of influence

• Both superpowers prized Third World countries with strategic locations and military bases

• Nationalism swept through most Third World nations, making it difficult for the superpowers to make major inroads

• Third World nations regarded both America and the Soviet Union with suspicion and distrust

America's Influence in the Third World

• America attempted to expand its influence through foreign aid (e.g. Aswan Dam in Egypt)

• Nationalist leader Gamal Nasser suspected Western motives and turned to the Soviet Union for aid

• President Eisenhower played a role in the Suez Canal crisis and pressured Britain and France to withdraw

• CIA used covert operations (disinformation, bribing politicians, influencing local business and politics) to increase American influence abroad

• CIA helped overthrow anti-American governments in Iran and Guatemala and tried (unsuccessfully) to assassinate Fidel Castro in Cuba

8.7 The 1960 Presidential Election

Election of 1960

• Richard Nixon (Republican) vs John F. Kennedy (Democrat)

• Both campaigned against communist menace and each other

• Kennedy won due to youth, good looks, choice of Lyndon Johnson as running mate, and television debate performance

• Nixon's campaign hurt by vice presidency and lack of endorsement from Eisenhower

• Close election, with possible voter fraud

Eisenhower's Farewell Address

• Warning against the military-industrial complex

• Combination of military and profitable arms industries created a powerful alliance

• Interests of this alliance did not align with general public

• Later seen as identification of those responsible for escalation of Vietnam War

The Turbulent Sixties

• 1960s started with hope and excitement, "Camelot" era

• Kennedy and his administration were seen as young, ambitious, and intellectual

• Dubbed as "the best and the brightest" by the press

• Kennedy's youth, good looks, and wit earned him the adoration of millions

• New Frontier program promised to conquer poverty, racism, and other contemporary issues

• By 1969, America was bitterly divided

• Conflicts centered around the Vietnam War and Black people's struggle for civil rights

• Kennedy perceived Soviet Union and communism as the major threats to US security

• Every major foreign policy issue related to Cold War concerns

• Two major events heightened American-Soviet tensions: Cuba and Berlin Wall

• Kennedy inherited the Cuban issue and attempted to solve it with the ill-fated Bay of Pigs invasion

• Invasion failed and led to diminished America's stature with allies

• Berlin Wall symbolized the repressive nature of communism and divide between democratic West and communist East

• JFK's "Ich bin ein Berliner" statement was not a grammatical error

• Cuban missile crisis in 1962 brought US and Soviet Union closest to military confrontation

• Kennedy imposed naval quarantine on Cuba to prevent further weapons shipments and demanded Soviet withdrawal

• Brinkmanship policy resulted in peaceful resolution of the crisis

8.8 Kennedy and Domestic Policy

President John F. Kennedy: The New Frontier and Civil Rights

• Kennedy's Presidency:

  • Began with a promise of conquering a New Frontier

  • Pushed through legislation to improve the country's welfare

  • Increased unemployment benefits

  • Expanded Social Security

  • Raised minimum wage

  • Aided distressed farmers

• Civil Rights Agenda:

  • Varied results

  • Supported women's rights

    • Established presidential commission to remove obstacles to women's participation in society

    • Congress passed the Equal Pay Act (1963) requiring equal pay for equal work

    • Employers still found ways to bypass the law

  • Embraced Black civil rights late in his presidency

    • Enforced desegregation at the University of Alabama and the University of Mississippi

    • Asked Congress to outlaw segregation in all public facilities

    • Assassination in November 1963

• JFK's Actions on Civil Rights:

  • Ordered Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to make public transportation integrated

  • Active period for the civil rights movement

    • Nongovernmental organizations mobilized to build on previous decade's gains

    • Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) staged sit-ins and boycotts

    • Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized the Freedom Riders

    • Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) did grassroots work for voter registration and antisegregationist activism

  • Civil rights groups faced resistance

    • Mississippi's NAACP director, Medgar Evers, was shot to death by an anti-integrationist

    • Demonstrators in Montgomery, Alabama, were assaulted by police and fire department using attack dogs and fire hoses

    • News reports of these events helped bolster the movement

    • JFK's assassination also had an impact on the civil rights movement

8.9 Lyndon Johnson’s Social Agenda

President Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights Movement

• Unlike Kennedy, Johnson took immediate action to demonstrate his commitment to the civil rights movement

• Lobbied for the Civil Rights Act of 1964

  • Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, or gender

  • Most comprehensive piece of civil rights legislation in U.S. history

  • Prohibited discrimination in employment and public facilities

• Established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce employment clause

• Signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965

  • Cracked down on states denying Black people the right to vote

• Signed another civil rights act banning discrimination in housing

• Extended voting rights to Native Americans living under tribal governments

• Believed social injustice stemmed from social inequality and advocated for civil rights in employment

• Lobbied for and won the Economic Opportunity Act

  • Appropriated nearly $1 billion for poverty relief

• Expanded antipoverty program after election victory

  • Project Head Start

  • Upward Bound

  • Job Corps

  • Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA)

  • Legal Services for the Poor

  • Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

  • Increased federal aid to low-income renters

  • Built more federal housing projects

  • Established Medicare and Medicaid

• Great Society - sweeping change to U.S. government since the New Deal

• Increased tax revenues from expanding economy funded the whole package

• Objections to increase in government activity

• Extension of civil rights met with bigoted opposition, especially in the South

• Huge coalition that gave Johnson victory and mandate for change started to fall apart due to successes and bitter national debate over Vietnam

The Civil Rights Movement

Civil Rights Movement in the Early 1960s

Legislative Successes:

• Passed under Johnson’s Great Society program

• Provided government support

Victories in the Courts:

• Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren

• Warren Court was extremely liberal

• Worked to enforce voting rights for Black people

• Forced states to redraw congressional districts for greater minority representation

• Prohibited school prayer

• Protected the right to privacy

• Rulings on rights of the accused: Gideon v. Wainwright, Miranda v. Arizona

Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the Constitution:

• Ratified on January 23, 1964

• Banned the use of the poll tax in all elections

Resistance to Change:

• Strong opposition from state governments, police, and white citizens

• Examples of police violence: Selma, Birmingham

• Racists bombed Black churches and homes of civil rights activists

• Mississippi: three civil rights workers murdered by local police department

Growing Outrage in the Black Community:

• Activists abandon Martin Luther King's nonviolent strategy

• Malcolm X advocates "by any means necessary"

• SNCC and CORE expel white members and advocate Black Power

• Black Panthers at forefront of movement

Fragmentation of the Movement:

• 1968: King assassinated

• Some continue to advocate integration and peaceful change

• Others argue for empowerment through segregation and aggression

8.10 The New Left, Feminism, and the Counterculture

• Young whites, particularly college students, challenged the status quo of middle-class life in the 1960s

• The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was formed in 1962 with leftist political agenda

• New Left ideals included elimination of poverty and racism, and end to Cold War politics

• The Free Speech movement was formed at the University of California, Berkeley in 1964

• The Beat Movement started in the 1950s and challenged conservatism with works promoting bohemian lifestyles, drug use and non-traditional art

• The New Left groups were male-dominated and insensitive to women's rights

• Betty Friedan's book "The Feminine Mystique" challenged assumptions about women's place in society and restarted the women's movement

• National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed in 1966 to fight for legislative changes, including the Equal Rights Amendment

• The modern movement for gay rights began in the 1960s, with the first Gay Pride parades

• Feminists fought against discrimination in hiring, pay, college admissions, and financial aid, and control of reproductive rights

• The Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade (1973) enabled women to obtain abortions in all 50 states within the first trimester

• The Supreme Court established a constitutional right to privacy in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

• Mario Savio's speech on December 3, 1964, spoke against "the operation of the machine"

• Rebellion against "the establishment" also took the form of nonconformity, typified by the counterculture of the hippies

• Counterculture of the hippies included long hair, tie-dyed shirts, ripped jeans, drug use, communal living, and "free love"

• Environmental issues rose to prominence with the publication of Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring"

• Legislators responded to environmental concerns with the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970

American Involvement in Vietnam, World War II–1963

U.S. Foreign Policy and Vietnam War

U.S. Policy on Communism

• Asserted right to intervene anywhere to stop spread of communism and protect American interests

Origins of U.S. Involvement in Vietnam

• Vietnam was French colony until World War II

• Exported resources for French consumption

• Nationalist Vietnamese resistance (Vietminh) led by Ho Chi Minh

• Ho asked Woodrow Wilson for help in expelling French, but was ignored

• Japan invaded and ended French control, but U.S. did not recognize Vietnamese independence or Ho's government

• U.S. recognized Bao Dai's government installed by French in South

• Vietnam fought war for independence against French (1946-1954)

• U.S. financed French war effort in Indochina (80%)

• Geneva Accords (1954) divided Vietnam at 17th parallel, temporarily

• U.S. sabotaged peace agreement by forming alliance with Ngo Dinh Diem and sabotaging elections

• Formed Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) for South Vietnam's defense

Downward Spiral of the Situation

• Diem was vicious leader, imprisoning political enemies, closing newspapers, and attracting Vietcong

• U.S. continued to support Diem and South Vietnam economically

• Kennedy increased involvement by sending in military advisors

• CIA staged a coup to overthrow Diem's government in 1963

• Diem and his brother killed during coup

• Kennedy appalled by outcome, assassinated a few weeks later

• Johnson took control of America's war efforts.

American Involvement in Vietnam, 1964–1968

Johnson Administration

• Opportunity to withdraw American forces, but Kennedy's advisers convinced Johnson to remain committed to total victory

• Supported second coup in South Vietnam; US not selective about who ran country as long as it wasn't Communist

• US Army started bombing Laos (North Vietnamese weapons shipment)

• Reports of North Vietnamese firing on American destroyer ships in Gulf of Tonkin (not confirmed)

• Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed, allowed president to take necessary measures to protect American interests

• First ground troops arrived in early 1965

• Flooded region with American troops, authorized massive bombing raids into North Vietnam (Operation Rolling Thunder)

• Chemical agents like Agent Orange and Napalm used in bombing

• US took over war effort from South Vietnamese, resulting in Americanization of the war

• As the war ground on, opposition to the war grew, protests increased, and young men either ignored draft or fled to avoid service

Opposition to the War

• Johnson's advisers continued to assure him war was winnable until the North Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive in January 1968

• Tet Offensive was a major turning point in the war, North Vietnamese and Vietcong nearly captured American embassy in Saigon

• Tet Offensive made the American public believe they were being lied to and the war was not winnable

• The My Lai Massacre occurred in 1968, US soldiers abused, tortured, and murdered innocent civilians

• When story of massacre came to light in 1969, public was outraged, protests against the war grew angrier and more frequent

The Summer of 1968 and the 1968 Election

Johnson's Presidential Race Withdrawal

• Johnson's association with the Vietnam War turned many Americans and people within his own party against him

• Renomination would not have been easy, with challenges from McCarthy and Kennedy

• Withdrawal opened the field to Vice President Hubert Humphrey

Civil Unrest After King Assassination

• Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. sparked civil unrest and looting

• Police ordered to shoot arsonists in Chicago, where Democratic convention would be held

• King's assassination heightened tension surrounding race relations

• Kerner Commission report stated that nation was moving toward two separate, unequal societies

Robert Kennedy Assassination

• Robert Kennedy, front-runner for Democratic nomination, assassinated

• Kennedy represented hope for many Americans as an advocate for the poor and critic of Vietnam War

• Two assassinations convinced many that peaceful change from within political system was impossible

Democratic Convention Demonstrations

• Disenchanted young Americans demonstrated against government policy at the Democratic Convention

• Police ordered to break up crowds with tear gas, billy clubs, and rifles

• Images of police clubbing citizens reached millions, reminiscent of police states America fought against

• Convention chose pro-war Humphrey over antiwar McCarthy and refused to condemn war effort, alienating left-wing constituency

Republican and Third-Party Nominations

• Republicans handed nomination to former Vice President Richard Nixon at peaceful convention

• Alabama governor George Wallace ran segregationist third-party campaign, popular in the South

• Wallace siphoning Humphrey's potential support in the South

• Humphrey denounced Vietnam War late in campaign, but it was too little, too late

Election Result

• One of the closest elections in history

• Richard Nixon elected president

8.11 The Counter Counterculture

1960s & 1970s in America

• Rollicking party filled with free love, new social ideas, and worthy political causes for young people.

• Not everyone embraced the changes of the 1960s

• Conservative resurgence began in the 1970s at grassroots level

• Focus on single issues: ending abortion, criticizing affirmative action, emphasizing traditional gender roles and nuclear family

• Older people suspicious of young questioning values of parents/grandparents

• Religious people distrusted rejection of traditional morals and beliefs

• Southern segregationists resisted civil rights movement

• Some Americans tired of marches and protests, wanted return to peaceful way of life

Opposition to the Changes of the 1960s

• Dismayed with civil rights movement, counterculture, and feminism

• Alarmed by rising cost of social welfare programs created by New Deal and Johnson's Great Society

Phyllis Schlafly

• Notable leader in Conservative reaction to the changes of the 1960s

• Most well known for lobbying against the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution

• ERA passed Congress, but never fully ratified due to efforts to quell it by Schlafly and supporters

Opposition to the ERA

• Could lead to conscription of women into war, negatively affect women in divorce cases, allow men entry to women-only colleges and clubs

• Influenced the opinions of many Americans, ERA was never fully ratified

Richard Nixon

• Sought to appeal to Americans who did not fully embrace cultural and political changes of the 1960s and 1970s

• Conservatives voted for Nixon in large numbers, hoping he would reverse trend of encroaching federal power

• Some Southern Democrats voted for Nixon, distrusted newer liberal social policies of their party

Nixon, “Vietnamization,” and Détente

Nixon Administration and Vietnam War

• Promised to end American involvement in Vietnam through "Vietnamization"

• Began withdrawing troops but increased air strikes

• Believed in winning the war and ordered bombing raids and troops into Cambodia

• American involvement lasted until 1973, peace treaty negotiated with North Vietnam

Outcome of the War

• Negotiated peace crumbled, Saigon fell in 1975 and Vietnam united under communism

• War Powers Resolution passed in 1973 to prevent future presidents from undeclared wars

Success in Foreign Policy

• Increased trade with USSR and negotiated arms treaties

• Improved relations with China through secret negotiations and opening trade

• Used friendship with China as leverage against USSR

Contributions to Foreign Policy Vocabulary

• Détente: policy of "openness" and cooperation among countries

• Brief period of relaxed tensions between superpowers

• Détente ended with Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979

• Nixon Doctrine: United States would withdraw from overseas commitments, rely on local government alliances to check communism.

Nixon’s Domestic Policy

Domestic Issues During Nixon's Presidency

Economic Woes

• Period of stagflation (recession-inflation)

• Nixon tried to combat with interventionist measures (price-and-wage freeze, increased federal spending)

• Efforts failed to produce intended results

Political Tensions

• Divided society between haves and have-nots, conservatives and progressives

• Political rhetoric painted opposition as enemies of the "American way"

• Confrontations on college campuses heightened tensions (Kent State University, Jackson State University)

• Urban crime levels rose

1972 Election

• Nixon won re-election in a landslide victory

• Both houses of Congress remained under Democratic control

• Indication of mixed feelings towards political leaders

Watergate and Nixon’s Resignation

Pentagon Papers

• Top-secret government study of US involvement in Vietnam from World War II to 1968

• Published by two major newspapers in the summer of 1971

• Documents revealed numerous military miscalculations and lies told to the public

• Nixon fought to prevent publication, concerned about effect on secret negotiations with North Vietnam, USSR, and China

• Nixon lost the fight and increased his paranoia

The Plumbers

• Created by Nixon to prevent leaks of classified documents

• Undertook disgraceful projects such as burglarizing a psychiatrist's office

• Sabotaged Democratic campaigns and botched a burglary of Democratic headquarters in Watergate Hotel

Watergate Scandal

• White House effort to cover up the Watergate burglary

• Senate hearing began in early 1973 and lasted for 1.5 years

• Close advisers resigned, tried and convicted of felonies

• Nixon secretly recorded all conversations in the White House

• Legal battle over tapes lasted a year, with Supreme Court ordering Nixon to turn them over

• Tapes revealed unsavory aspects of Nixon's character

• Nixon resigned in August 1974 instead of facing impeachment proceedings

• Vice President Gerald Ford took office and granted Nixon a presidential pardon

People

• Henry Kissinger: Secretary of State under Nixon

• Daniel Ellsberg: Government official who turned the Pentagon Papers over to the press

• Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein: Investigative journalists for The Washington Post

• Gerald Ford: Vice President and later President who granted Nixon a presidential pardon

Gerald Ford

President Gerald Ford

• Became president after Nixon resigned

• Replaced first vice president Spiro Agnew who resigned due to corruption charges

• Selected Nelson Rockefeller as his Vice President

• First time neither President nor Vice President elected by public

Pardon of Nixon

• Brought Watergate era to a close

• Cost Ford politically

• Raised suspicions of a deal with Nixon

Economic Challenges

• Weak economy

• Oil embargo by Arab nations (OPEC) causing fuel price hikes

• Inflation and increasing unemployment rate

• Damaged credibility due to media, especially parodies by Chevy Chase on Saturday Night Live

Defeat in 1976 Election

• Defeated by Democrat Jimmy Carter

Jimmy Carter

Economic Problems during Jimmy Carter's Presidency

• Weakening economy inherited by Carter

• Inflation exceeded 10%

• Interest rates approached 20%

• Slow economic growth combined with inflation worsened stagflation

• Failed to balance the federal budget

• Increased cost of OPEC petroleum caused many economic problems

Efforts to Address Economic Problems

• Increased funding for research into alternative sources of power

• Created the Department of Energy to oversee these efforts

• Many saw nuclear power as a solution to the energy crisis

• Fears about nuclear power reinforced after failure of Three Mile Island

Foreign Policy Accomplishments

• Brokered peace agreement between Israel and Egypt

• Concluded arms agreement with the USSR

Foreign Policy Setbacks

• Failed to force USSR withdrawal from Afghanistan

• Flip-flopped in Nicaragua

• Worst crisis was the Iran Hostage Crisis

Promotion of Human Rights

• Made promotion of human rights a cornerstone of foreign policy

• Negotiated treaty between US and Panama

• Ratified the treaty in the Senate

Retirement and Legacy

• Spent retirement working with organizations like Habitat for Humanity.