AP US History Ultimate Study Guide
Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World in 1492
He was not the first European to reach North America, the Norse had arrived in modern Canada around 1000
But his arrival marked the beginning of the Contact Period, during which Europe sustained contact with the Americas.
The period ends in 1607 because that is the year of the first English settlement.
Bering Land Bridge (Connected Eurasia and North America)
First people to inhabit North and South America came across Bering Land Bridge.
Ancestors of the Native Americans could walk across the Bering land bridge from Siberia (in modern Russia) to Alaska.
During this period, the planet was significantly colder.
Much of the world's water was locked up in vast polar ice sheets, causing sea levels to drop.
As the planet warmed, sea levels rose, and this bridge was submerged forming the Bering Strait.
Native Americans in Pre-Columbian North America
The Pre-Columbian era refers to the period before Christopher Columbus' arrival in the "New World".
North America was populated by Native Americans, not to be confused with native-born Americans.
Culture clash between European settlers and Native Americans
European settlers brought different culture, religion, and technology.
Native Americans had their own complex societies, cultures, and religions.
Conflicts and misunderstandings occurred between the two groups.
Conflicts throughout American history
Native Americans resisted European colonization and expansion.
Many wars and battles between Native Americans and European settlers.
Enslaved Africans by European settlers first arrived in 1501.
Policies of forced relocation and assimilation were implemented by the US government.
Native American populations were greatly reduced and their cultures were suppressed.
The marker of 1491 serves as a division between the Native American world and the world that came after European exploration, colonization, and invasion.
North America was home to hundreds of tribes, cities and societies.
Indigenous societies in North America before Europeans were definitely very complex.
The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development.
Along Northwest coast and in California, tribes developed communities along ocean to hunt whales and salmon, totem poles, and canoes.
In the northeast, the Mississippi river valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard, some indigenous societies developed.
Natives in the Great Plains and surrounding grasslands retained the nomadic lifestyles.
In Southwest, people had fixed lifestyles.
The Great Plains was more suitable for hunting and gathering food sources.
New ships, such as caravel allowed for longer exploratory voyages.
In August of 1492, Colombus used three caravels, supplied and funded by the Spanish crown, to set sail toward India.
After voyage, when reached land and found a group of people called the Taino and renamed their island San Salvador and claimed it for Spain.
Columbus voyage pleased the Spanish Monarchs.
Other European explorers also set sail to the New World in search of gold, glory and spread the word of their God.
Period of rapid exchange of plants, animals, foods, communicable diseases, and diseases.
Europe had the resources and technology to establish colonies far from home.
It’s between the Old world and the New world.
Old world refers to Africa, Asia, and Europe.
Old World to New World: horses, pigs, rice, wheat, grapes
New World to Old World: corn, potatoes, chocolate, tomatoes, avocado, sweet potatoes.
The introduction of new crops to Europe helped to increase food production and stimulate growth.
A colony is a territory settled and controlled by a foreign power.
Columbus arrival initiated a long period of European expansion and colonialism in the Americas.
During the next century, Spain was the colonial power in the Americas.
Spanish founded a number of coastal towns in Central and South America and in the West Indies
Conquistadors collected and exported as much of the area's wealth as they could.
Native Americans | Society | Europeans |
---|---|---|
Regarded the land as the source of life, not as a commodity to be sold. | View of Land | Believed that the land should be tamed and in private ownership of land. |
Thought of the natural world as filled with spirits. Some believed in one supreme being. | Religious Beliefs | The Roman Catholic Church was the dominant religious institution in western Europe. The pope had great political and spiritual authority. |
Bonds of kinships ensured the continuation of tribal customs. The basic unit of organization among all Native American groups was the family, which included aunts, uncles, cousins, and other relatives. | Social Organization | Europeans respected kinship, but the extended family was not as important to them. Life centered around the nuclear family (father and mother and their children). |
Assignments were based on gender, age, and status. Depending on the region, some women could participate in the decision-making process. | Division of Labor | Men generally did most of the field labor and herded livestock. Women did help in the fields, but they were mostly in charge of child care and household labor. |
Extensive use of enslaved Africans began when colonists from the Caribbean settled the Carolinas
Until then, indentured servants and, in some situations, enslaved Native Americans had mostly satisfied labor requirements
As tobacco-growing and, in South Carolina, rice-growing operations expanded, more laborers were needed than indenture could provide
Events such as Bacon’s Rebellion showed landowners it was not in their best interest to have an abundance of landless, young, white males in their colonies either
They knew the land, so they could easily escape and subsequently were difficult to find
In some Native American tribes, cultivation was considered women’s work, so gender was another obstacle to enslaving the natives
Europeans brought diseases that often decimated the Native Americans, wiping out 85 to 95 percent of the native population
Southern landowners turned increasingly to enslaved Africans for labor
Unlike Native Americans, enslaved Africans did not know the land, so they were less likely to escape
Removed from their homelands and communities, and often unable to communicate with one another because they were from different regions of Africa, enslaved Black people initially proved easier to control than Native Americans
Dark skin of West Africans made it easier to identify enslaved people on sight
English colonists associated dark skin with inferiority and rationalized Africans’ enslavement
Majority of the slave trade, right up to the Revolution, was directed toward the Caribbean and South America
More than 500,000 enslaved people were brought to the English colonies (of the over 10 million brought to the New World)
By 1790, nearly 750,000 Black people were enslaved in England’s North American colonies
Shipping route that brought enslaved people to the Americas
Was the middle leg of the triangular trade route among the colonies, Europe, and Africa
Conditions for the Africans aboard were brutally inhumane
Some committed suicide, many died of sickness or during insurrections
It was not unusual for one-fifth of the Africans to die on board
Most reached the New World, where conditions were only slightly better
Mounting criticism (primarily in the North) of the horrors of the Middle Passage led Congress to end American participation in the Atlantic slave trade on January 1, 1808
Slavery itself would not end in the United States until 1865
Flourished in the South due to nature of land and short growing season
Chesapeake and Carolinas farmed labor-intensive crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo
Plantation owners bought enslaved people for this arduous work
Treatment at the hands of the owners was often vicious and at times sadistic
Did not take hold in the North the same way it did in the South.
Used on farms in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
Used in shipping operations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island.
Used as domestic servants in urban households, particularly in New York City
Northern states would take steps to phase out slavery following the Revolution.
Still enslaved people in New Jersey at the outbreak of the Civil War
Only the very wealthy owned enslaved people.
The vast majority of people remained at a subsistence level.
Flourished in the South due to nature of land and short growing season.
Chesapeake and Carolinas farmed labor-intensive crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo.
Plantation owners bought enslaved people for this arduous work.
Treatment at the hands of the owners was often vicious and at times sadistic.
Did not take hold in the North the same way it did in the South.
Used on farms in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania
Used in shipping operations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island
Used as domestic servants in urban households, particularly in New York City
Northern states would take steps to phase out slavery following the Revolution.
Still enslaved people in New Jersey at the outbreak of the Civil War
Only the very wealthy owned enslaved people
The vast majority of people remained at a subsistence level.
During the next century, Spain was the colonial power in the Americas.
Spanish founded a number of coastal towns in Central and South America and in the West Indies
Conquistadors collected and exported as much of the area's wealth as they could
Under Spain's encomienda system, the crown granted colonists authority over a specified number of natives
Colonist was obliged to protect those natives and convert them to Catholicism
In exchange, the colonist was entitled to those natives' labor for such enterprises as sugar harvesting and silver mining.
This system sounds like a form of slavery because it was a form of slavery.
Once Spain had colonized much of modern-day South America and the southern tier of North America, other European nations were inspired to try their hands at New World exploration
They were motivated by a variety of factors such as desire for wealth and resources, clerical fervor to make new Christian converts, and the race to play a dominant role in geopolitics.
The vast expanses of largely undeveloped North America and the fertile soils in many regions of this new land, opened up virtually endless potential for agricultural profits and mineral extraction
Improvements in navigation, such as the invention of the sextant in the early 1700s, made sailing across the Atlantic Ocean safer and more efficient.
Intercontinental trade became more organized with the creation of joint-stock companies, corporate businesses with shareholders whose mission was to settle and develop lands in North America
The most famous ones were the British East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and later, the Virginia Company, which settled Jamestown.
Increased trade and development in the New World also led to increased conflict and prejudice
Europeans debated how Native Americans should be treated
Spanish and Portuguese thinkers proposed wildly different approaches to the treatment of Native populations, ranging from peace and tolerance to dominance and enslavement
The belief in European superiority was nearly universal
Some Native Americans resisted European influence, while others accepted it
Intermarriage was common between Spanish and French settlers and the natives in their colonized territories (though rare among English and Dutch settlers)
Many Native Americans converted to Christianity
Spain was particularly successful in converting much of Mesoamerica to Catholicism through the Spanish mission system
Explorers, such as Juan de Oñate, swept through the American Southwest, determined to create Christian converts by any means necessary—including violence
As colonization spread, the use of enslaved Africans purchased from African traders from their home continent became more common
Much of the Caribbean and Brazil became permanent settlements for plantations and their enslaved people
Africans adapted to their new environment by blending the language and religion of their masters with the preserved traditions of their ancestors
Religions such as voodoo are a blend of Christianity and tribal animism
Enslaved people sang African songs in the fields as they worked and created art reminiscent of their homeland
Some, such as the Maroon people, even managed to escape slavery and form cultural enclaves
Slave uprisings were not uncommon, most notably the Haitian Revolution
Unlike other European colonizers, the English sent large numbers of men and women to the agriculturally fertile areas of the East
Despite our vision of the perfect Thanksgiving table, relationships with local Native Americans were strained, at best.
English intermarriage with Native Americans and Africans was rare
So no new ethnic groups emerged, and social classes remained rigid and hierarchical.
England’s first attempt to settle North America came a year prior to its victory over Spain, in 1587, when Sir Walter Raleigh sponsored a settlement on Roanoke Island (now part of North Carolina).
The colony had disappeared by 1590, which is why it came to be known as the Lost Colony.
The English did not try again until 1607, when they settled Jamestown.
Jamestown was funded by a joint-stock company, a group of investors who bought the right to establish New World plantations from the king
The company was called the Virginia Company—named for Elizabeth I, known as the Virgin Queen—from which the area around Jamestown took its name.
The settlers, many of them English gentlemen, were ill-suited to the many adjustments life in the New World required of them, and they were much more interested in searching for gold than in planting crops.
Within three months, more than half the original settlers were dead of starvation or disease
Jamestown survived only because ships kept arriving from England with new colonists.
Captain John Smith decreed that “he who will not work shall not eat,” and things improved for a time, but after Smith was injured in a gunpowder explosion and sailed back
One of the survivors, John Rolfe, was notable in two ways. First, he married Powhatan’s daughter Pocahontas, briefly easing the tension between the natives and the English settlers.
Second, he pioneered the practice of growing tobacco, which had long been cultivated by Native Americans, as a cash crop to be exported back to England.
The English public was soon hooked, so to speak, and the success of tobacco considerably brightened the prospects for English settlement in Virginia.
Because the crop requires vast acreage and depletes the soil (and so requires farmers to constantly seek new fields), the prominent role of tobacco in Virginia’s economy resulted in rapid expansion.
The introduction of tobacco would also lead to the development of plantation slavery.
As new settlements sprang up around Jamestown, the entire area came to be known as the Chesapeake (named after the bay).
That area today comprises Virginia and Maryland.
English colonies in North America, such as Jamestown, were largely motivated by financial reasons and the desire for wealth and resources
Indentured servitude, in which individuals agreed to work for a period of time in exchange for passage to the colonies, was a common way for people to migrate to the Chesapeake
Indentured servitude was difficult and many did not survive their term, but it provided a path to land ownership and voting rights for working-class men in Europe
Over 75% of the 130,000 Englishmen who migrated to the Chesapeake during the 17th century were indentured servants
The success of tobacco as a cash crop in the Chesapeake led to rapid expansion and the development of plantation slavery.
In 1618, the Virginia Company introduced the headright system as a means of attracting new settlers to the region and addressing the labor shortage created by the emergence of tobacco farming.
A "headright" was a tract of land, usually about 50 acres, that was granted to colonists and potential settlers.
In 1619, Virginia established the House of Burgesses, in which any property-holding, white male could vote.
Decisions made by the House of Burgesses, however, had to be approved by the Virginia Company.
1619 also marks the introduction of slavery to the English colonies.
French colonized Quebec City in 1608
French Jesuit priests attempted to convert native peoples to Roman Catholicism but were more likely to spread diseases
French colonists were fewer in number compared to Spanish and English and tended to be single men
French settlers intermarried with native women and tended to stay on the move, especially if they were coureurs du bois (“runners in the woods”) who helped trade for furs
French played a significant role in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) but overall had a much lighter impact on native peoples compared to Spanish and English
French chances of shaping the region known as British North America were slim due to the Edict of Nantes in 1598
Fewer French settlers in North America compared to Spanish and English
French settlers intermarried with native women
French settlers tended to stay on the move, especially if they were coureurs du bois
French played a significant role in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) but overall had a much lighter impact on native peoples compared to Spanish and English
French chances of shaping the region known as British North America were slim due to the Edict of Nantes in 1598
English Calvinists led a Protestant movement called Puritanism in the 16th century
Puritans sought to purify the Anglican Church of Roman Catholic practices
English monarchs of the early 17th century persecuted the Puritans
Puritans began to look for a new place to practice their faith
One group of Puritans, called Separatists, decided to leave England and start fresh in the New World
In 1620, Separatists set sail for Virginia on the Mayflower, but went off course and landed in modern-day Massachusetts
The group decided to settle where they had landed and named the settlement Plymouth.
Led by William Bradford
Signed the Mayflower Compact
Created a legal authority and assembly
Government's power derived from consent of governed, not God
Received assistance from local Native Americans
Important for creating legal system for colony
Asserted government's power from consent of governed
Life-saving assistance
Pilgrims landed at site of Patuxet village wiped out by disease
Tisquantum/Squanto, an inhabitant of the village, was captured and brought to Europe as enslaved person
Returned to homeland, found it depopulated
Became Pilgrims' interpreter and taught them how to plant in new home.
1629-1642
Established by Congregationalists (Puritans who wanted to reform Anglican church from within)
Led by Governor John Winthrop
Developed along Puritan ideals
Winthrop delivered famous sermon, "A Model of Christian Charity" urging colonists to be a "city upon a hill"
Believed in covenant with God
Concept of covenants central to entire philosophy (political and religious)
Government as covenant among people
Work served communal ideal
Puritan church always to be served
Both Separatists and Congregationalists did not tolerate religious freedom in their colonies
Both had experienced and fled religious persecution
Settlers of Massachusetts Bay Colony were strict Calvinists
Calvinist principles dictated their daily lives
Protestant work ethic and relationship to market economy
Roots of Civil War may be traced back to founding of Chesapeake and New England
Two major incidents during first half of 17th century
Roger Williams, a minister in Salem Bay settlement, taught that church and state should be separate
Banished and moved to Rhode Island, founded colony with charter allowing for free exercise of religion
Anne Hutchinson, a prominent proponent of antinomianism, banished for challenging Puritan beliefs and authority of Puritan clergy
Anne Hutchinson was a woman in a resolutely patriarchal society which turned many against her.
Plantation economy dependent on slave labor developed in Chesapeake and southern colonies
New England became commercial center.
Near halt between 1649 and 1660 during Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector of England
Puritans had little motive to move to New World during Interregnum (between kings)
With the restoration of the Stuarts, many English Puritans again immigrated to the New World, bringing with them republican ideals of revolution
Entire families tended to immigrate to New England, but Chesapeake immigrants were often single males
Climate in New England was more hospitable, leading to longer life expectancy and larger families
Stronger sense of community and absence of tobacco as cash crop led New Englanders to settle in larger towns
Chesapeake residents lived in smaller, more spread-out farming communities
New Englanders were more religious, settling near meetinghouses
Slavery was rare in New England, but farms in middle and southern colonies were much larger, requiring large numbers of enslaved Africans
South Carolina had a larger proportion of enslaved Africans than European settlers
Period preceding the French and Indian War is often described as salutary neglect or benign neglect.
England regulated trade and government in its colonies but interfered in colonial affairs as little as possible.
England set up absentee customs officials and colonies were left to self-govern.
England occasionally turned a blind eye to the colonies' violations of trade restrictions.
Developed a large degree of autonomy.
Helped fuel revolutionary sentiments when monarchy later attempted to gain greater control of the New World.
Throughout the colonial period, Europeans used a theory called mercantilism.
Mercantilists believed that economic power was rooted in a favorable balance of trade and control of specie
Colonies were important mostly for economic reasons, which is why the British considered their colonies in the West Indies more important than their colonies on the North American continent
Colonies on the North American continent were seen primarily as markets for British and West Indian goods, but also as sources of raw materials
British government encouraged manufacturing in England and placed protective tariffs on imports that might compete with English goods
Navigation Acts passed between 1651 and 1673, required colonists to buy goods only from England, sell certain of their products only to England, and import non-English goods via English ports and pay a duty on those imports
Navigation Acts also prohibited the colonies from manufacturing a number of goods that England already produced
Wool Act of 1699, forbade both the export of wool from the American colonies and the importation of wool from other British colonies
Molasses Act of 1733, imposed an exorbitant tax upon the importation of sugar from the French West Indies
New Englanders frequently refused to pay the taxes imposed by these acts
Forbade both the export of wool from the American colonies and the importation of wool from other British colonies
Some colonists protested this law by dealing only in flax and hemp
Imposed an exorbitant tax upon the importation of sugar from the French West Indies
New Englanders frequently refused to pay the tax, an early example of rebellion against the Crown.
Despite trade regulations, colonists maintained a high degree of autonomy
Each colony had a governor appointed by the king or proprietor
Governor had powers similar to the king, but also dependent on colonial legislatures for money
Governor's power relied on cooperation of colonists, most ruled accordingly
Except for Pennsylvania, all colonies had bicameral legislatures modeled after British Parliament
Lower house functioned similar to House of Representatives, members directly elected by white, male property holders and had "power of the purse"
Upper house made of appointees serving as advisors to governor, had some legislative and judicial powers
Most upper house members chosen from local population and concerned with protecting interests of colonial landowners
British never established powerful central government in colonies
Autonomy allowed eased transition to independence in following century
Small efforts made by colonists towards centralized government
New England Confederation most prominent attempt
No real power, but offered advice to northeastern colonies when disputes arose
Provided opportunity for colonists from different settlements to meet and discuss mutual problems
Colonies "grew up," developing fledgling economies.
Beginnings of an American culture, as opposed to a transplanted English culture, took root.
Near halt between 1649 and 1660 during Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector of England
Puritans had little motive to move to New World during Interregnum (between kings)
With the restoration of the Stuarts, many English Puritans again immigrated to the New World, bringing with them republican ideals of revolution
Entire families tended to immigrate to New England, but Chesapeake immigrants were often single males
Climate in New England was more hospitable, leading to longer life expectancy and larger families
Stronger sense of community and absence of tobacco as cash crop led New Englanders to settle in larger towns
Chesapeake residents lived in smaller, more spread-out farming communities
New Englanders were more religious, settling near meetinghouses
Slavery was rare in New England, but farms in middle and southern colonies were much larger, requiring large numbers of enslaved Africans
South Carolina had a larger proportion of enslaved Africans than European settlers
Several colonies were owned by one person, usually received land as gift from king
Connecticut and Maryland were two such colonies
Received charter in 1635
Produced Fundamental Orders, considered first written constitution in British North America
Granted to Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore
Calvert intended to create haven colony for Catholics and make a profit growing tobacco
Offered religious tolerance for all Christians but tension between faiths soon arose
Act of Tolerance passed in 1649 to protect religious freedom but situation devolved into religious civil war
Royal gift to James, king's brother
Dutch Republic was largest commercial power of the century and economic rival of the British
Dutch had established initial settlement in 1614 near present-day Albany, which they called New Netherland
In 1664, Charles II of England waged war against the Dutch Republic and captured New Netherland
James became Duke of York, and when he became king in 1685, he proclaimed New York a royal colony
Dutch were allowed to remain in colony on generous terms and made up large segment of population for many years
Given to friends of Charles II, who sold it off to investors, many of whom were Quakers
William Penn, a Quaker, received colony as a gift from King Charles II
Charles had a friendship with William Penn and wanted to export Quakers to someplace far from England
Penn established liberal policies towards religious freedom and civil liberties
Pennsylvania had natural bounty and attracted settlers through advertising, making it one of the fastest growing colonies
Penn attempted to treat Native Americans more fairly but had mixed results
Penn made a treaty with the Delawares to take only as much land as could be walked by a man in three days. His son, however, renegotiated the treaty, hiring three marathon runners for the same task, thereby claiming considerably more land.
Proprietary colony (English-owned)
Split into North and South in 1729
Settled by Virginians
Settled by descendants of Englishmen who had colonized Barbados
Barbados’ primary export: sugar
Plantations worked by enslaved people
Existed in Virginia since 1619
Arrival of settlers from Barbados marked the beginning of the slave era in the colonies
First Englishmen in the New World to see widespread slavery at work
Formation of South Carolina and ongoing armed conflicts with Spanish Florida prompted British to support formation of Georgia by James Oglethorpe in 1732
Georgia initially banned slavery
Ban was soon overturned due to economic advantage and growth afforded to neighboring South Carolina due to slavery
Most of the proprietary colonies were converted to royal colonies (owned by the king)
Greater control over government
By the time of the Revolution, only Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were not royal colonies.
Population in 1700 was 250,000 and by 1750 it was 1,250,000
Substantial non-English European populations (Scotch-Irish, Scots, Germans) started arriving in large numbers during the 18th century
English settlers continued to come to the New World as well
Black population in 1750 was more than 200,000
In a few colonies, Black population would outnumber whites by the time of the Revolution
Over 90% of colonists lived in rural areas
Labor divided along gender lines, men doing outdoor work and women doing indoor work
Opportunities for social interaction outside the family were limited
Patriarchy society, children and women were subordinate to men
Children's education was secondary to their work schedules
Women were not allowed to vote, draft a will, or testify in court
Predominantly lived in the countryside and in the South
Lives varied from region to region, with conditions being most difficult in the South
Enslaved people who worked on large plantations and had specialized skills fared better than field hands
Condition of servitude was demeaning
Enslaved people often developed extended kinship ties and strong communal bonds to cope with the misery of servitude
In the North, Black people often had trouble maintaining a sense of community and history.
Often worse than in the countryside
Immigrants settled in cities for work, but work paid too little and poverty was widespread
Sanitary conditions were primitive, epidemics such as smallpox were common
Cities offered residents wider contact with other people and the outside world
Centers for progress and education
Citizens with anything above a rudimentary level of education were rare
Nearly all colleges established during this period served primarily to train ministers
Early colleges in the North include Harvard and Yale (established in 1636 and 1701, respectively)
College of William and Mary was chartered in the South in 1693
New England society centered on trade, Boston was the colonies' major port city
Population farmed for subsistence, subscribed to rigid Puritanism
Middle colonies (New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey) had more fertile land and focused primarily on farming
Lower South (the Carolinas) concentrated on cash crops such as tobacco and rice
Slavery played a major role on plantations, but majority of Southerners were subsistence farmers
Blacks constituted up to half the population of some southern colonies
Chesapeake colonies (Maryland and Virginia) combined features of the middle colonies and the lower South
Slavery and tobacco played a larger role in the Chesapeake than in the middle colonies
Chesapeake residents also farmed grain and diversified their economies
Development of major cities in the Chesapeake region distinguished it from the lower South, which was almost entirely rural.
Took place on Virginia's western frontier in 1676
Frontier farmers forced west into back country due to all coastal land being claimed
Encroaching on land inhabited by Native Americans led to raids on frontier farmers
Frontier settlers sought to band together and drive out native tribes
Stymied by government in Jamestown, which did not want to risk full-scale war
Class resentment grew as frontiersmen suspected eastern elites viewed them as expendable "human shields"
Nathaniel Bacon, a recent immigrant, rallied the farmers and demanded Governor William Berkeley grant him authority to raise a militia and attack nearby tribes
When Berkeley refused, Bacon and his men attacked the Susquehannock and Pamunkeys, who were actually allies of the English
Rebels then turned their attention to Jamestown, sacking and burning the city
Rebellion dissolved when Bacon died of dysentery, conflict between colonists and Native Americans averted with new treaty
Often cited as early example of populist uprising in America
First and one of the most successful slave rebellions
Took place in September 1739 near Stono River, outside of Charleston, South Carolina
Approximately 20 enslaved people stole guns and ammunition, killed storekeepers and planters, and liberated a number of enslaved people
Rebels fled to Florida, where they hoped the Spanish colonists would grant them their freedom
Colonial militia caught up with them and attacked, killing some and capturing most of the others
Those who were captured and returned were later executed
As a result of the Stono Uprising, many colonies passed more restrictive laws to govern the behavior of enslaved people
Fear of slave rebellions increased, and New York experienced a "witch hunt" period
Took place in 1692, not the first witch trials in New England
During the first 70 years of English settlement in the region, 103 people (almost all women) had been tried on charges of witchcraft
Never before had so many been accused at once, more than 130 "witches" were jailed or executed in Salem
Historians have different explanations for why the mass hysteria started and ended so quickly
Region had recently endured the autocratic control of the Dominion of New England
In 1691, Massachusetts became a royal colony under new monarchs, suffrage was extended to all Protestants
War against French and Native Americans on the Canadian border increased regional anxieties
Feared that their religion was being undermined by commercialism in cities like Boston
Many second and third generation Puritans lacked the fervor of the original settlers
Led to the Halfway Covenant in 1662 which changed rules for Puritan baptisms
Prior to the Halfway Covenant, a Puritan had to experience God's grace for their children to be baptized
With many losing interest in the church, the Puritan clergy decided to baptize all children whose parents were baptized
However, those who had not experienced God's grace were not allowed to vote
All of these factors (religious, economic, and gender) combined to create mass hysteria in Salem in 1692
Accusers were mostly teenage girls who accused prominent citizens of consorting with the Devil
Town leaders turned against the accusers and the hysteria ended
Generations that followed original settlers were generally less religious
By 1700, women constituted the majority of active church members
First Great Awakening in the 1730s and 1740s
Wave of religious revivalism in the colonies and Europe
Led by Congregationalist minister Jonathan Edwards and Methodist preacher George Whitefield
Edwards preached severe, predeterministic doctrines of Calvinism
Whitefield preached a Christianity based on emotionalism and spirituality
Often described as a response to the Enlightenment, a European intellectual movement emphasizing rationalism over emotionalism or spirituality.
Self-made, self-educated man who typified Enlightenment ideals in America
Printer's apprentice who became a wealthy printer and respected intellectual
Created Poor Richard's Almanack which remains influential to this day
Did pioneering work in electricity, inventing bifocals, the lightning rod, and the Franklin stove
Founded the colonies' first fire department, post office, and public library
Espoused Enlightenment ideals about education, government, and religion
Colonists' favorite son until George Washington came along
Served as an ambassador in Europe and negotiated a crucial alliance with the French and peace treaty that ended the Revolutionary War.
Also called the French and Indian War, it was actually one of several “wars for empire” fought between the British and the French.
The war was the inevitable result of colonial expansion, where English settlers moved into the Ohio Valley, and the French tried to stop them by building fortified outposts.
George Washington led a colonial contingent, which attacked a French outpost and lost.
Washington surrendered and was allowed to return to Virginia, where he was welcomed as a hero.
Most Native Americans in the region allied themselves with the French, who had traditionally had the best relations with Native Americans of any of the European powers.
The war dragged on for years before the English finally gained the upper hand.
When the war was over, England was the undisputed colonial power of the continent.
The treaty gave England control of Canada and almost everything east of the Mississippi Valley.
The French kept only a few small islands, underscoring the impact of mercantilism since the French prioritized two small but highly profitable islands over the large landmass of Canada.
William Pitt, the English Prime Minister during the war, was supportive of the colonists and encouraged them to join the war effort.
When the leadership in Britain changed after the war, that led to resentment by the colonists against the British rule.
Native Americans had previously been able to use French and English disputes to their own advantage, but the English victory spelled trouble for them.
The Native Americans particularly disliked the English, because English expansionism was more disruptive to their way of life.
In the aftermath of the war, the English raised the price of goods sold to the Native Americans and ceased paying rent on their western forts.
In response, Ottawa war chief Pontiac rallied a group of tribes in the Ohio Valley and attacked colonial outposts, which is known as Pontiac's Rebellion.
In response to Pontiac's Rebellion, the Paxton Boys, a group of Scots-Irish frontiersmen in Pennsylvania murdered several in the Susquehannock tribe.
Developed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754
Proposed an intercolonial government and a system for collecting taxes for the colonies' defense
Representatives from seven colonies met in Albany, New York to consider the plan
Franklin also tried to negotiate a treaty with the Iroquois
Plan was rejected by the colonies as they did not want to relinquish control of their right to tax themselves or unite under a single colonial legislature
Franklin's frustration was well publicized in a political cartoon showing a snake broken into pieces with the words "Join or Die."
Financing the war resulted in a huge debt for the British government
King George III and Prime Minister George Grenville felt that colonists should help pay the debt
Colonists believed they had fulfilled their obligation by providing soldiers
Parliament imposed new regulations and taxes on colonists
First was the Sugar Act of 1764, established new duties and provisions aimed at deterring molasses smugglers
Prior to the decade leading up to the Revolutionary War, there was little colonial resistance to previous trade and manufacturing regulations
The Sugar Act actually lowered the duty on molasses coming into the colonies from the West Indies
Angry about the new regulations being more strictly enforced and the duties being collected
Difficult for colonial shippers to avoid committing even minor violations of the Sugar Act
Violators were to be arrested and tried in vice-admiralty courts without jury deliberation
Suggested to some colonists that Parliament was overstepping its authority and violating their rights as Englishmen.
Sugar Act, Currency Act, and Proclamation of 1763 caused a great deal of discontent in the colonies
Colonists bristled at British attempts to exert greater control
End of Britain's long-standing policy of salutary neglect
Economic depression further exacerbated the situation
Colonial protest was uncoordinated and ineffective
Passed in 1765 by Parliament
Aimed at raising revenue specifically
Awakened the colonists to the likelihood of more taxes to follow
Demonstrated that colonies' tradition of self-taxation was being unjustly taken by Parliament
Broad-based tax, covering all legal documents and licenses
Affected almost everyone, particularly lawyers
Tax on goods produced within the colonies
Built on previous grievances and more forceful than any protest preceding it
Pamphlet by James Otis, called The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, laid out the colonists’ argument against the taxes
Otis put forward the “No taxation without representation” argument
Argued for either representation in Parliament or a greater degree of self-government for the colonies
British scoffed at the notion, arguing that colonists were already represented in Parliament through the theory of virtual representation
Colonists knew that their representation would be too small to protect their interests
Wanted the right to determine their own taxes.
Opponents united in various colonies
Virginia, Patrick Henry drafted the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves, asserting colonists’ right to self-government
Boston, mobs burned customs officers in effigy, tore down a customs house, and nearly destroyed the governor’s mansion
Protest groups formed throughout the colonies, called themselves Sons of Liberty
Opposition was so effective that no duty collectors were willing to perform their job
In 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act
George III replaced Prime Minister Grenville with Lord Rockingham, who had opposed the Stamp Act
Rockingham oversaw the repeal but also linked it to the passage of the Declaratory Act, which asserted British government's right to tax and legislate in all cases anywhere in the colonies
Although the colonists had won the battle over the stamp tax, they had not yet gained any ground in the war of principles over Parliament's powers in the colonies
Drafted by Charles Townshend, minister of the exchequer
Taxed goods imported directly from Britain, the first such tax in the colonies
Some of the tax collected was set aside for the payment of tax collectors, meaning that colonial assemblies could no longer withhold government officials’ wages in order to get their way
Created even more vice-admiralty courts and several new government offices to enforce the Crown’s will in the colonies
Suspended the New York legislature because it had refused to comply with a law requiring the colonists to supply British troops
Instituted writs of assistance, licenses that gave the British the power to search any place they suspected of hiding smuggled goods
Stronger than previous protests
Massachusetts Assembly sent letter (Massachusetts Circular Letter) to other assemblies asking that they protest the new measures in unison
British fanned the flames of protest by ordering the assemblies not to discuss the Massachusetts letter
Governors dissolved legislatures that discussed the letter, further infuriating colonists
Colonists held numerous rallies and organized boycotts
Sought support of “commoners” for the first time
Boycotts were most successful because they affected British merchants, who then joined the protest
Colonial women were essential in the effort to replace British imports with “American” (New England) products
After two years, Parliament repealed the Townshend
Stationed large numbers of troops in America
Made the colonists responsible for the cost of feeding and housing them
Even after the Townshend duties were repealed, the soldiers remained, particularly in Boston
Officially sent to keep the peace but heightened tensions
Detachment was huge - 4,000 men in a city of only 16,000
Soldiers sought off-hour employment and competed with colonists for jobs
On March 5, 1770, a mob pelted a group of soldiers with rock-filled snowballs
Soldiers fired on the crowd, killing five
Propaganda campaign that followed suggested that the soldiers had shot into a crowd of innocent bystanders
John Adams defended the soldiers in court, helping to establish a tradition of giving a fair trial to all who are accused
Boston Massacre shocks both sides into de-escalating rhetoric
Uneasy status quo falls into place for next two years
Colonial newspapers discuss ways to alter relationship between mother country and colonies
Very few radicals suggest independence
Things pick up in 1772 when British implement Townshend Acts (colonial administrators paid from customs revenues)
Colonists respond cautiously, setting up Committees of Correspondence to trade ideas and inform one another of political mood
Mercy Otis Warren and other writers call for revolution
John Dickinson's "Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania" unites colonists against Townshend Acts
British grant East India Tea Company monopoly on tea trade in colonies, colonists see new taxes imposed
Boston Tea Party results in British response with Coercive/Intolerable Acts (closes Boston Harbor, tightens control over Massachusetts government, Quartering Act)
Quebec Act (grants greater liberties to Catholics, extends boundaries of Quebec Territory) further impeding westward expansion, causing further dissatisfaction among colonists.
Convened in late 1774
All colonies except Georgia sent delegates
Represented diverse perspectives
Goal: enumerate American grievances, develop strategy for addressing grievances, formulate colonial position on relationship between royal government and colonial governments
Came up with list of laws colonists wanted repealed
Agreed to impose boycott on British goods until grievances were redressed
Formed Continental Association with towns setting up committees of observation to enforce boycott
These committees became de facto governments
Formulated limited set of parameters for acceptable Parliamentary interference in colonial affairs
Committees of observation expanded powers
Replaced British-sanctioned assemblies in many colonies
Led acts of insubordination (collecting taxes, disrupting court sessions, organizing militias and stockpiling weapons)
John Adams later commented "The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people"
The British Underestimated the Pro-Revolutionary Movement
Government officials believed if they arrested ringleaders and confiscated weapons, violence could be averted
Dispatched troops to confiscate weapons in Concord, Massachusetts in April 1775
Troops had to pass through Lexington, where they confronted a small colonial militia (minutemen)
Someone fired a shot, which drew British return fire
Minutemen suffered 18 casualties (8 dead)
British proceeded to Concord where they faced a larger militia
Militia inflicted numerous casualties and forced British to retreat
Battle of Concord referred to as "the shot heard 'round the world"
Colonists used time to rally citizens to the cause of independence
Not all were convinced, Loyalists included government officials, devout Anglicans, merchants dependent on trade with England, religious and ethnic minorities who feared persecution by the rebels
Many enslaved people believed their chances for liberty were better with the British than with the colonists
Increase in slave insurrections dampened some Southerners' enthusiasm for revolution
Patriots were mostly white Protestant property holders and gentry, as well as urban artisans, especially in New England
Much of the rest of the population hoped the whole thing would blow over
Quakers of Pennsylvania were pacifists and wanted to avoid war.
Prepared for war by establishing a Continental Army, printing money, and creating government offices to supervise policy
Chose George Washington to lead the army because he was well-liked and a Southerner
John Dickinson and the Olive Branch Petition
Many delegates followed John Dickinson who was pushing for reconciliation with Britain using the Olive Branch Petition
Adopted by the Continental Congress on July 5, 1775
Last-ditch attempt to avoid armed conflict
King George III was not interested since he considered the colonists to be in open rebellion
One year before the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, the colonial leaders were trying to reconcile with the mother country.
Published in January 1776 by Thomas Paine, an English printer
Advocated for colonial independence and republicanism over monarchy
Sold more than 100,000 copies in its first three months
Accessible to colonists who couldn't always understand the Enlightenment-speak of the Founding Fathers
Helped swing support to the patriot cause among people who were unsure about attacking the mother country
Bigger success than James Otis's The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved
Literacy rates in New England were higher due to the Puritan legacy of teaching children to read the Bible
Nevertheless, Paine's pamphlet reached a wider audience, including those who couldn't read
Proportional equivalent of selling 13 million downloads today
Rebels were looking for a masterpiece of propaganda to rally colonists to their cause
Common Sense served as this masterpiece and helped swing support to the patriot cause.
Commissioned by the Congress in June 1776
Written by Thomas Jefferson
Enumerated the colonies' grievances against the Crown
Articulated the principle of individual liberty and government's responsibility to serve the people
Despite its flaws, it remains a powerful document
Signed on July 4, 1776
The Revolutionary War became a war for independence with the signing of the Declaration
The Declaration not only set out the colonies' complaints against the British government but also laid out the philosophical underpinnings of the revolution, most notably the assertion that all men are created equal and have certain inalienable rights
The Declaration has been considered as a seminal document in American history, and has been a source of inspiration for movements for civil rights and freedom across the world.
Occurred on October 17, 1781
Symbolic end to the American Revolution
Major British general, Cornwallis, was surrounded by the French navy and George Washington’s troops, and surrendered
Began a long period of negotiations between the American colonies and Great Britain, which would finally end the war in October of 1783
Continental Army had trouble recruiting good soldiers
Congress eventually recruited Black people, and up to 5,000 fought on the side of the rebels
Franco-American Alliance, negotiated by Ben Franklin in 1778, brought the French into the war on the side of the colonists
Treaty of Paris, signed at the end of 1783, granted the United States independence and generous territorial rights
Sent to the colonies for ratification in 1777 by the Continental Congress
The first national constitution of the United States
Intentionally created little to no central government due to fear of creating a tyrannical government
Gave the federal government no power to raise an army
Could not enforce state or individual taxation, or a military draft
Could not regulate trade among the states or international trade
Had no executive or judicial branch
Legislative branch gave each state one vote, regardless of the state's population
In order to pass a law, 9 of the 13 of the states had to agree
In order to amend or change the Articles, unanimous approval was needed
These limitations hurt the colonies during Shays's Rebellion.
Eventually, the limitations of the Articles of Confederation led to the drafting of the Constitution of the United States.
By 1787,
The federal government lacked sufficient authority under the Articles of Confederation.
Alexander Hamilton was concerned about no uniform commercial policy and fear for the survival of the new republic.
Hamilton convened the meeting -Only five delegates showed up
Congress consented to a "meeting in Philadelphia" for the sole purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation.
Delegates from all states except Rhode Island attended the meeting.
Meeting took place during the long, hot summer of 1787.
55 delegates
All men
All white
Many wealthy lawyers or landowners
Many owned enslaved people
Came from different ideological backgrounds
Called for modifications to Articles of Confederation
Called for equal representation from each state
Proposed by James Madison
Called for new government based on principle of checks and balances
Number of representatives for each state based on population
Executive branch led by president
Legislative branch composed of bicameral Congress
Judicial branch composed of Supreme Court
Expanded powers:
Enforce federal taxation
Regulate trade between states
Regulate international trade
Coin and borrow money
Create postal service
Authorize military draft
Declare war
Indirectly chosen by Electoral College
College composed of political leaders representing popular vote of each state
To win state's electoral votes, candidate must win majority of popular vote in that state
State's electoral count is sum of senators and representatives (determined by population)
Gives states with larger populations more power in presidential elections
Lasted 4 months
Delegates hammered out compromises
Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) blended NJ and VA plans for bicameral legislature
Constitution established:
House of Representatives elected by people
Senate elected by state legislatures
President and VP elected by Electoral College
Three branches of government: executive, legislative, judicial
Power of checks and balances
Method for counting enslaved people in southern states for "proportional" representation in Congress
Enslaved people counted as 3/5 of a person
Only three of 42 remaining delegates refused to sign
Two refused because it did not include a bill of rights.
Not guaranteed
Opponents (Anti-Federalists) portrayed federal government as all-powerful beast
Anti-Federalists came from backcountry and were particularly appalled by absence of bill of rights
Position resonated in state legislatures where fate of Constitution lay
Some held out for promise of immediate addition of Bill of Rights upon ratification
Forcefully and persuasively argued in Federalist Papers
Papers anonymously authored by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay
Published in New York newspaper and later widely circulated
Critical in swaying opinion in New York, a large and important state
Other important states of the era: Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts
Went into effect in 1789
Bill of Rights added in 1791
Unanimously chosen by Electoral College
Not sought presidency, but most popular figure in colonies
Accepted role out of sense of obligation
Exercised authority with care and restraint
Used veto only if convinced bill was unconstitutional
Comfortable delegating responsibility, created government of best minds of his time
Created a cabinet (not specifically granted in Constitution but every president since has had one)
Cabinet is made up of heads of executive departments, functions as president's chief group of advisors
Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state
Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury
Disagreed on proper relationship between federal and state government
Hamilton favored strong central government, weaker state governments
Jefferson feared monarchy/tyranny, favored weaker federal government with main powers of defense and international commerce
Hamilton proposed National Bank to help regulate and strengthen economy
Both houses of Congress approved but Washington uncertain of constitutionality
Debate established two main schools of thought on constitutional law
Strict constructionists (led by Jefferson and Madison) argued bank not necessary and thus beyond national government's powers
Hamilton (broad constructionist) argued bank implied power of government and not explicitly forbidden by Constitution
Washington agreed with Hamilton and signed bill
Busy and successful tenure
Handled national debt accrued during war
Financial plan called for federal government to assume states' debts, repay by giving debt holders land on western frontier
Plan favored northern banks and drew accusations of helping monied elite at expense of working classes
Struck political deal to get most of plan implemented, concession was southern location for nation's capital
Capital moved to Washington D.C. in 1800
Took place during Washington's presidency
Caused considerable debate between Jefferson and Hamilton
Jefferson supported revolution and republican ideals
Hamilton had aristocratic leanings, disliked revolutionaries
Issue came to forefront when France and England resumed hostilities
British were primary trading partner after war, nudged U.S. toward neutrality in French-English conflict
Jefferson agreed on neutrality as correct course to follow
Washington declared U.S. intention to remain "friendly and impartial" (Neutrality Proclamation)
Genêt's visit sparked rallies by American supporters of the revolution
Federalists (favoring strong federal government)
Republicans/Democratic-Republicans (followers of Jefferson)
Development of political parties troubled framers of the Constitution, seen as factions dangerous to survival of Republic
Federalists who supported ratification of the Constitution are often the same people as Federalists who favored strong federal government.
Republican party created in 1850s is a very different group which still survives today.
Implemented excise tax on whiskey to raise revenue
Farmers in western Pennsylvania resisted, instigating Whiskey Rebellion
Washington dispatched militia to disperse rebels, demonstrated new government's power to respond
Rebellion highlighted class tensions between inland farmers and coastal elites
Negotiated by John Jay to address British evacuation of NW and free trade violations
Prevented war with Great Britain, but considered too many concessions towards British
Congress attempted to withhold funding to enforce treaty
Washington refused to submit documents, establishing precedent of executive privilege
Considered low point of Washington's administration
Negotiated by Thomas Pinckney with Spain, addressing use of Mississippi River, duty-free access to markets, and removal of Spanish forts on American soil
Spain promised to try to prevent Native American attacks on Western settlers
Ratified by U.S. Senate in 1796, considered high point of Washington's administration
Declined to run for third term, set final precedent
Composed in part by Alexander Hamilton
Warned future presidents against "permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world"
Promoted notion of friendly relationships with all nations, but avoiding permanent alliances
Warning remained prominent part of American foreign policy through mid-20th century
During the 1790s, women’s roles in courtship, marriage, and motherhood were reevaluated in light of the new republic and its ideals
Women were largely excluded from political activity but had an important civil role and responsibility
Women were to be the teachers and producers of virtuous male citizens
Public virtue had been a strictly masculine quality in the past, private virtue emerged as a very important quality for women
Women were given the task of inspiring and teaching men to be good citizens through romance and motherhood
Women were to entertain only suitors with good morals, providing more incentive for men to be more ethical
Women held a tremendous influence on their son
Advocates for female education spoke out, arguing that educated women would be better mothers, who would produce better citizens
Even though the obligations of women had grown to include this new political meaning, traditional gender roles were largely unchanged as the education of women was meant only in service to husbands and family
The idea of Republican Motherhood emerged in the early 1800s
The role of the mother became more prominent in child-rearing
Mothers were now expected to raise educated children who would contribute positively to the United States.
The Electoral College selected John Adams, a Federalist, as Washington’s successor
Under the then-current rules, the second-place candidate became vice president, so Adams’s vice president was the Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson
Following the Washington Era, Adams’s presidency was bound to be an anticlimax
Adams, argumentative and elitist, was a difficult man to like
He was also a hands-off administrator, often allowing Jefferson’s political rival Alexander Hamilton to take charge
The animosity between Jefferson and Hamilton and the growing belligerence between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans set the ugly, divisive tone for Adams’s term
Perhaps Adams’s greatest achievement was avoiding all-out war with France
After the United States signed the Jay Treaty with Britain, France began seizing American ships on the open seas
Adams sent three diplomats to Paris, where French officials demanded a huge bribe before they would allow negotiations even to begin
The diplomats returned home, and Adams published their written report in the newspapers
Because he deleted the French officials’ names and replaced them with the letters X, Y, and Z, the incident became known as the XYZ Affair
As a result, popular sentiment did a complete turnaround; formerly pro-French, the public became vehemently anti-French to the point that a declaration of war seemed possible
Aware of how small the American military was, Adams avoided the war (a war Hamilton wanted) and negotiated a settlement with a contrite France although he was not able to avoid the Naval skirmishes called the Quasi-War
The low point of Adams’s tenure was the passage and enforcement of the Alien and Sedition Acts
The acts allowed the government to forcibly expel foreigners and to jail newspaper editors for “scandalous and malicious writing”
The acts were purely political, aimed at destroying new immigrants’—especially French immigrants’—support for the Democratic-Republicans
Worst of all, the Sedition Act, which strictly regulated antigovernment speech, was a clear violation of the First Amendment
Vice President Jefferson led the opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts
Together with Madison, he drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (which were technically anonymous)
The resolutions argued that the states had the right to judge the constitutionality of federal laws
The resolutions went on to exercise this authority they claimed, later referred to as nullification, by declaring the Alien and Sedition Acts void
Virginia and Kentucky, however, never prevented enforcement of the laws
Rather, Jefferson used the laws and the resolutions as key issues in his 1800 campaign for the presidency
Even today, states often pass resolutions similar to these to express their displeasure with the federal government.
General
By 1800, the Federalist Party was split, clearing the way to the presidency for the Democratic-Republicans
Two men ran for the party nomination: Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr
Election Results
Each received an equal number of votes in the Electoral College, which meant that the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives was required to choose a president from between the two
It took 35 ballots, but Jefferson finally won
Alexander Hamilton swallowed hard and campaigned for Jefferson, with whom he disagreed on most issues and whom he personally disliked, because he believed Burr to be “a most unfit and dangerous man.”
Burr later proved Hamilton right by killing him.
Noteworthy Reasons
The election was noteworthy for two reasons
For the second time in as many elections, a president was saddled with a vice president he did not want.
The other, more important reason the election was significant is that in America’s first transfer of power—from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans—no violence occurred, a feat practically unprecedented for the time.
Change-over
Jefferson referred to his victory and the subsequent change-over as “the bloodless revolution.”
The problem of the president being saddled with a vice president he did not want was remedied in 1804 with the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, which allowed electors to vote for a party ticket.
General
The transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans may have been a bloodless one, but it was not a friendly one
Adams was so upset about the election that he left the capital before Jefferson took office in order to avoid attending the inauguration ceremony
Midnight Appointments
Before he left town, Adams made a number of midnight appointments, filling as many government positions with Federalists as he could
Jefferson’s response was to refuse to recognize those appointments
He then set about replacing as many Federalist appointees as he could. He dismissed some, pressured others to retire, and waited out the rest
By his second term, the majority of public appointees were Democratic-Republicans
Marbury v. Madison
Jefferson’s refusal to accept Adams’s midnight appointments resulted in a number of lawsuits against the government
One, the case of Marbury v. Madison reached the Supreme Court in 1803
William Marbury, one of Adams’s last-minute appointees, had sued Secretary of State James Madison for refusing to certify his appointment to the federal bench
Chief Justice John Marshall was a Federalist, and his sympathies were with Marbury, but Marshall was not certain that the court could force Jefferson to accept Marbury’s appointment
Marshall’s decision in the case established one of the most important principles of the Supreme Court: judicial review
The court ruled that Marbury did indeed have a right to his judgeship but that the court could not enforce his right.
Judicial Review
The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court the authority to order federal appointees (such as Madison) to deliver appointments such as William Marbury’s
Marshall believed that this act gave too much power to the Judicial Branch at the expense of Congress and the Presidency, and thus it was unconstitutional
In one fell swoop, Marshall had handed Jefferson the victory he wanted while simultaneously claiming a major role for the Supreme Court
Louisiana Purchase
The major accomplishment of Jefferson’s first term was the Louisiana Purchase
When Spain gave New Orleans to the French in 1802, the government realized that a potentially troublesome situation was developing
The French, they knew, were more likely to take advantage of New Orleans’ strategic location at the mouth of the Mississippi
General
Thomas Jefferson faced with a dilemma with regards to the Constitution and the power of the federal government
as secretary of state under Washington, he had argued for a strict interpretation of the Constitution
Dilemma
Nowhere did the Constitution authorize the president to purchase land, yet clearly Jefferson could not pass up this opportunity to double the size of the United States
Jefferson thought about trying to get a constitutional amendment added allowing him to buy land from other countries
Ultimately, Jefferson resolved the issue by claiming his presidential power to negotiate treaties with foreign nations
Louisiana Purchase
His decision to purchase Louisiana without Congressional approval was not unanimously applauded
New England Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase because they feared (correctly) that more western states would be more Democratic states, and that they would lose political power.
They formed a group called the Essex Junto, planning to secede from the United States (and asked Aaron Burr to be their leader), but the plan never fully materialized
Some Republicans, led by John Randolph of Virginia, criticized Jefferson for violating Republican principles. This group became known as the Quids
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Jefferson sent explorers, among them Lewis and Clark, to investigate the western territories, including much of what was included in the Louisiana territory
This trip included Sacajawea as the Shoshoni guide who helped Lewis and Clark negotiate with other Native American tribes on the way up the Missouri River
All returned with favorable reports, causing many pioneers to turn their attentions westward in search of land, riches, and economic opportunities
Those early explorers also reported back to Jefferson on the presence of British and French forts that still dotted the territory, garrisoned with foreign troops that had been (deliberately?) slow to withdraw after the regime changes of the previous half-century
Election of 1804
In 1804, Jefferson won reelection in a landslide victory
During the 1804 elections, Aaron Burr ran for governor of New York
Again, Alexander Hamilton campaigned against Burr
When Burr lost, he accused Hamilton of sabotaging his political career and challenged him to a duel in which he killed Hamilton
Afterward, Burr fled to the Southwest, where he plotted to start his own nation in parts of the Louisiana Territory. He was later captured and tried for treason but was acquitted due to lack of evidence
French-English dispute leads to War of 1812
British and French blockading trade routes
American ships and sailors impressed by British
Tensions mount, culminating in British frigate attack on American ship in American waters
Jefferson unable to go to war, responds with boycott and increasing military appropriations
Embargo Act of 1807
Shut down of American import and export business
Disastrous economic results, especially in New England
Smuggling becomes widespread
New England states strongly opposed
Led to loss of Democratic Republican Congressional seats in 1808 elections
Non-Intercourse Act of 1809
Reopened trade with most nations
Officially banned trade with Britain and France
Jefferson chooses not to seek third term, endorses James Madison for presidency
Macon's Bill No. 2
Reopened trade with both France and England
If either country interfered with American trade, the other would be cut off
Napoleon promised to stop interference, leading to embargo on England
France continued to harass American ships
British stepped up attacks on American ships
Pro-War Sentiments
Southern and Western War Hawks saw opportunity to gain new territories
Strong desire to gain Canada from British
Led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun
Madison and the Declaration of War
Madison held out as long as he could
Finally asked Congress to declare war in 1812.
War of 1812
Native Americans aligned with British
Tecumseh unified area tribes to stop American expansion
British armed Native Americans in Western territories
American forces ill-prepared for war, fighting went badly
British captured Washington, D.C. and set White House on fire
Most battles fought to a stalemate
Treaty of Ghent signed, ending war
Battle of New Orleans, clear-cut U.S. victory
Federalists opposed war and met in Hartford Convention
War spurred American manufacturing, led to self-sufficiency
The Hartford Convention
Grievances including trade laws and presidential term limits
Federalists considered traitors, party dissolved
Madison Administration
Promoted national growth
Cautious extension of federal power
Championed protective tariffs, interstate road improvements, and rechartering of National Bank (American System/Nationalist Program)
Henry Clay lobbied aggressively for American System, often referred to as "Henry Clay's American System"
Era of Good Feelings
Only one political party, briefly leaves United States with unity
Chief Justice John Marshall's rulings strengthens federal government
Panic of 1819 causes economic turmoil and nearly ends good feelings
No nationally organized political opposition results from panic
Westward Expansion
John Quincy Adams negotiated treaties to fix U.S. borders and open new territories
Acquisition of Florida from Spanish through Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819
International tensions caused by revolutions in Central and South America
Monroe Doctrine: Policy of mutual non-interference and America's right to intervene in its own hemisphere
Monroe Doctrine is first of several doctrines that will become foreign policy
Slavery Debate
New period of expansion results in national debate over slavery
Missouri is the first state carved out of Louisiana Purchase and slavery debate continues until Civil War.
Election of 1824
Prior to 1824, electors chosen by state legislatures or congressional caucuses
By 1824, majority of states allowed voters to choose presidential electors directly
Democratic-Republican caucus chose William H. Crawford, leading to opposition and demise of caucus system
Andrew Jackson received the greatest number of popular votes and electoral votes but no one had a majority
Election decided in the House of Representatives, with Speaker of the House Clay supporting Adams
Corrupt Bargain
Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State, leading to allegations of a corrupt bargain between the two
Adams and Clay both vowed to be removed in the election of 1828
William Crawford suffered a stroke after the initial election and was not a real contender for the House vote
Constitution
In cases where there is no majority winner in the Electoral College, the three top electoral winners go on to House election
Andrew Jackson's era as president is an important period in American history
Jackson's campaign for presidency in 1824 was vicious, with surrogates accusing opponents of corruption and misconduct
The campaign eventually led to the formation of the present-day Democratic Party
In 1828, Jackson won the election by a large margin and became the first president who wasn't born in Virginia or named Adams
Jackson was seen as the epitome of a self-made man and had the interests of the West in mind
Among his first acts as president, Jackson dismissed numerous government officials and replaced them with political supporters
This led to criticism of cronyism and the rise of the spoils system, in which jobs were traded for political favors
Jackson's popularity ushered in the age of Jacksonian democracy, which replaced Jeffersonian republicanism
Jacksonian democracy characterized by universal white manhood suffrage and a strong presidency
Jackson used his popularity to challenge Congress and the Supreme Court in a way that none of his predecessors had
However, Jacksonian democracy is not a coherent vision of how a government should function and Jackson was not as great a thinker as Jefferson.
Jackson's treatment of the Cherokees with the Indian Removal Act of 1830 is one of the most criticized policies by modern scholars.
The concept of treating Native Americans as "foreign nations" was established by the British, and the US government continued this policy after gaining independence.
Some Americans, such as Thomas Jefferson, believed that assimilation into American culture could be a solution to the "Indian Problem."
By the time of Jackson's presidency, there were "Five Civilized Tribes" living in the South, including the Cherokee nation. They had developed a written language, converted to Christianity, and embraced agriculture.
The problem arose when gold was discovered on Cherokee land and citizens of Georgia demanded that the Cherokees comply with the Indian Removal Act, which demanded that they resettle in Oklahoma.
Jackson argued that moving away from white society was the best way to protect themselves from white encroachment and maintain their traditional customs.
The Cherokees refused and brought their case to the Supreme Court, which sided with them in two cases. However, Jackson refused to comply with the Court's decision and thousands of Cherokees were forced to walk to Oklahoma in what is known as the Trail of Tears. Thousands died of sickness and starvation along the way.
Another issue during Jackson's presidency was the doctrine of nullification, where states believed they had the right to disobey federal laws if they found them unconstitutional.
The Tariff of 1828, also known as the Tariff of Abominations, was passed during the Adams administration but almost turned into a national crisis during Jackson's administration.
In 1828, John C. Calhoun, Jackson's vice president, anonymously published "The South Carolina Exposition and Protest" arguing that states who felt the 50 percent tariff was unfairly high could nullify the law.
Distrust of big government and northeastern power brokers
Downsizing the federal government and strengthening the presidency through the use of veto
Opposed reform movements that called for increased government activism
Vetoed the rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States (BUS) and withdrew federal funds to deposit in state "pet" banks
Believed the BUS protected northeastern interests at the expense of the West
Argued that the bank was an unconstitutional monopoly, but the Supreme Court ruled against him
Preferred "hard currency" such as gold or silver
Specie Circular, which ended the policy of selling government land on credit, caused a money shortage and a sharp decrease in the treasury, and helped trigger the Panic of 1837
Congress overturned the circular in the last days of Jackson's final term
Grew to be an ever more controversial issue during the time of Jacksonian Democracy
As the northern abolition movement grew stronger, the South experienced several slave revolts
More brutal disciplinary measures by slaveholders
Nat Turner's Rebellion, a slave rebellion where Nat Turner rallied a gang that killed and mutilated 60 whites.
In retaliation, 200 enslaved people were executed, some with no connection at all to the rebellion
Fearful that other enslaved people would emulate Turner's exploits, southern states passed a series of restrictive laws, known as slave codes, prohibiting Black people from congregating and learning to read
Other state laws even prevented whites from questioning the legitimacy of slavery
After Turner's Rebellion, Virginia's House of Burgesses debated ending bondage but did not pass a law.
Democratic Party and Whig Party
Jackson's Democratic party unable to represent all constituencies (northern abolitionists, southern plantation owners, western pioneers)
Whig party formed as opposition to Democratic party
By 1834, almost as many congressmen supported Whig party as Democratic party
Whigs were a loose coalition united by opposition to Democratic party policies
Whigs believed in government activism, especially in social issues
Many Whigs were religious and supported temperance movement and enforcement of the Sabbath
Whig Beliefs
Similar to Federalists in support of manufacturing, opposition to new immigrants, and Westward Expansion
Election of 1836 and Panic of 1837
Jackson supported Democrat Martin Van Buren for vice president
Van Buren assumed presidency during economic crisis (Panic of 1837)
Van Buren's policy of favoring hard currency made money hard to come by, worsening the crisis
Economic downturn lasted through Van Buren's term, making re-election unlikely
William Henry Harrison and John Tyler
Whig William Henry Harrison became president in 1841, but died a month later
Vice president John Tyler, a former Democrat, assumed presidency
Tyler championed states' rights, alienating Whig leadership
Tyler vetoed numerous Whig bills, causing his cabinet to resign in protest
Tyler referred to as "president without a party," and his presidency lasted only one term.
Economic Developments in 19th century US
Economic developments played important role in political events leading to Civil War and determined characteristics of different regions
Along with social developments, economic factors laid foundation for important issues in American society for following century (abolitionism, women's suffrage, temperance)
Beginnings of a Market Economy
Before Revolutionary War, most settlers raised crops for subsistence, not market
People made own clothing and built own furniture and homes, cash transactions were rare
Developments in manufacturing and transportation led to market economy development
Market economy favors those who specialize, but can also lead to overproduction and dependence on market
Rapid transition from subsistence economy to market economy in first decades of 19th century
War of 1812 and National Economy
War of 1812 and events leading up to it forced US to become less dependent on imports and develop stronger national economy
Cotton Gin and Interchangeable parts
Cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, revolutionized southern agriculture and increased demand for cotton
Spread of cotton as chief crop intensified South's dependence on slave labor
Other notable inventions that revolutionized agriculture include steel plow and mechanical reaper
Whitney's second innovation was use of interchangeable parts in manufacturing, which made mass production more efficient and cost-effective.
North and Textile Industry
Textile industry in the North was developed by advances in machine technology and U.S. embargo on British goods prior to War of 1812
Textile mills in New England produced thread and hired local women to weave thread into cloth at home
Power loom in 1813 allowed manufacturers to produce both thread and finished fabric in own factories quickly and efficiently
Shortage of labor in New England led to worker-enticement programs like Lowell system
Other industries such as clothing manufacturers, retailers, brokers, and commercial banks grew around textile industry
Transportation Industry
Prior to 1820s, travel and shipping along east-west routes was difficult and most trade centered on north-south routes
Construction of National Road and completion of Erie Canal in 1825 made east-west travel and trade more accessible
Northeast established itself as center of commerce due to success of Erie Canal
Other regions attempted to duplicate success of Erie Canal with construction of thousands of miles of canals in the Northeast and Midwest, but most failed
Railroads developed as convenient means of transporting goods and by 1850, the Canal Era had ended.
Transportation and Communication
Inventions of steam engine and telegraph revolutionized travel and shipping, allowing for faster and more efficient transportation and communication
Steamships replaced sailing ships for long sea voyages and railroads replaced land travel
The Transportation Revolution by 1855, the cost to send things across America had fallen to one-twentieth of what it had cost in 1825, and they arrived in one-fifth the time.
Telegraph allowed for immediate long-distance communication and widespread use followed its invention almost immediately
Farming
Mechanization revolutionized farming in the first half of the 19th century, with many machines such as mechanical plow, sower, reaper, thresher, baler, and cotton gin coming into common use
Growth of market economy changed farming as more food went to market
Farming in the Northeast faced difficulties due to rocky, hilly terrain and over-farming of land, leading to some farmers switching to livestock and fruits/vegetables, or leaving for manufacturing jobs
Midwest became America's chief source of grains and farms were larger and more adaptable to new technology, with banks providing capital for modern equipment and trade routes providing access to markets.
Louisiana Purchase removed major obstacle to U.S. western settlement
War of 1812 removed another obstacle by depriving Native Americans of British ally
By 1820, U.S. had settled region east of Mississippi River and was quickly expanding west
Americans believed in God-given right to western territories, known as America's Manifest Destiny
Some argued for annexation of Canada, Mexico, and all of Americas
Terrain and climate could be cold and unforgiving
Settlers from East moving into areas belonging to Native Americans and Mexicans
Mexico declared independence from Spain in 1821, included what is now Texas and Southwest
Mexican government established liberal land policies to entice settlers
Tens of thousands of Americans flooded the region, rarely becoming Mexican citizens
Ignored Mexican law, including prohibition of slavery
Mexican attempts to regain control led to rebellion and declaration of independence
Texas was independent country called Republic of Texas
Existence of slavery guaranteed Congressional battle over statehood, not admitted to Union until 1845
Thousands of settlers traveled to Willamette Valley via the Oregon Trail in early 1840s
Americans not first in area, large Native American population and British claiming for Canada
Russians also staked claim, both British and Americans saw them as a threat
Polk administration settled territorial dispute by signing treaty with England
Late 1840s, destination shifted to California due to Gold Rush
Discovery of gold in California mountains attracted over 100,000 people in 2 years
Most did not strike it rich, but settled area due to hospitable agriculture and access to Pacific Ocean for trade centers like San Francisco.
Three different sections of the country- North, South, and West (including Midwest) developed in different directions
North becoming industrialized, commercial center
South remained agrarian, chief crops- tobacco and cotton, constantly looking west for more land
Western economic interests varied but were largely rooted in commercial farming, fur trapping, and real-estate speculation
Technological advances in communications, transportation, industry, and banking helped it become the nation's commercial center
Farming played less of a role in northeastern economy than elsewhere in the country
Legal slavery became increasingly uncommon in this region throughout the early 1800s
Remained almost entirely agrarian
Chief crops- tobacco and cotton required vast acreage
Anxious to protect slavery, which the large landholders depended on, Southerners also looked for new slave territories to include in the Union
To strengthen their position in Congress and protect slavery from northern legislators
Westerners generally distrusted the North, which they regarded as the home of powerful banks that could take their land away
They had little more use for the South, whose rigidly hierarchical society was at odds with the egalitarianism of the West
Most Westerners wanted to avoid involvement in the slavery issue, which they regarded as irrelevant to their lives
Ironically, western expansion was the core of the most important conflicts leading up to the Civil War.
Growth of American economy in early 19th century brought about numerous social changes
Cotton gin and Industrial Revolution in England altered southern agriculture and increased reliance on slave labor
Development of commerce led to larger middle class, especially in North but also in southern and midwestern cities
Industrialization resulted in bigger cities with large (and often impoverished) migrant and immigrant neighborhoods
Westward migration created new frontier culture as pioneers dealt with uniqueness of West's landscape and climate
Each of these circumstances influenced people's attitudes and ambitions and set the scene for social and political events of the era
North became the nation's industrial and commercial center during the first half of the 19th century
Home to many of the nation's major cities
Cities faced numerous problems, lack of powerful urban governments to oversee rapid expansion
Modern waste disposal, plumbing, sewers, and incineration not yet developed, cities could be toxic environments
Proximity in which people lived and worked, coupled with sanitation problems, made epidemics likely
Cities meant jobs, many northern farmers moved to cities to work in new factories
Cities offered more opportunities for social advancement
Public schooling, labor unions, clubs and associations for middle and upper class to exert influence on government and society
Cities provided a wide variety of leisure-time options, such as theater and sports
Great disparity in distribution of wealth in northern cities, elite few controlled most of the personal wealth and led lives of power and comfort
Beneath them was the middle class, made up of tradesmen, brokers, and other professionals
Middle class often rose from the working class, who often worked in factories or at low-paying crafts, women often worked at home or as domestic servants
Cult of domesticity, supported by popular magazines and novels that glorified home life
Middle class also made up most of the market for luxury goods such as housewares and fine furniture
Working-class families lived just above poverty level, any calamity could plunge them into debt
Those in poverty were mostly recent immigrants, numbers swelled in the 1840s and 1850s
Immigrants faced discrimination and prejudice, often lived in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions
Westward migration brought new set of social problems, including issues of land ownership, displacement of Native Americans, and question of slavery.
The majority of Southerners lived in rural areas in near isolation in the South.
Family and church played a dominant role in social life, as there were few people around to support organized cultural and leisure events.
The South had few centers of commerce and limited infrastructure compared to the North.
The wealthiest Southern citizens formed an aristocracy of plantation owners who dominated southern society politically, socially, and economically.
Plantation owners grew cotton and tobacco, and many convinced themselves that the slave system benefited all of its participants, including the enslaved people.
Enslaved people lived in a state of subsistence poverty, often overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, and worked long hours at difficult and tedious labor.
Enslaved people developed a unique culture that blended aspects of their African roots with elements of Christianity, and developed subtle methods of resistance to maintain their dignity.
The majority of Southerners farmed small plots of land and were relatively poor, but they were generally self-sufficient.
The West and Frontier Living in the 19th century saw the constant changing of the frontier's boundaries.
In 1800, the frontier lay east of the Mississippi River, but by 1820, nearly all of this eastern territory had attained statehood and the frontier region consisted of much of the Louisiana Purchase.
Settlers also moved to Texas and then to a part of Mexico in the late 1820s and 1830s and by the early 1840s, the frontier had expanded to include the Pacific Northwest.
The US government actively encouraged settlers to move west by giving away or selling large tracts of land to war veterans and loaned money at reduced rates to civilians.
Settlers in the Ohio Valley and points west found the area was hospitable to grain production and dairy farming due to the flat land and new farm implements.
Transportation advances also made shipping produce easier and more profitable, leading to the Midwest becoming known as "the nation’s breadbasket."
Fur trading was another common commercial enterprise on the frontiers, with fur traders often being the first pioneers in a region.
Frontier life was rugged and settlers struggled against the climate, elements, and Native Americans.
The frontier offered opportunities for wealth, freedom, and social advancement, making it a symbol of freedom and equality to many Americans.
The 19th century saw the beginnings of true social reform in the United States, with many social reform movements growing out of the Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival.
Women were particularly active in reform groups, particularly those of the middle and upper classes.
The western and central regions of New York State were known as the Burned-over District for the spiritual fervor in the area.
Joseph Smith formed the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints in 1830.
Smith's preaching, particularly his acceptance of polygamy, drew strong opposition in the East and Midwest, culminating in his death by a mob while imprisoned in Illinois.
The Mormons, realizing they would never be allowed to practice their faith in the East, made the long, difficult trek to the Salt Lake Valley led by Brigham Young.
There, they settled and transformed the area from desert into farmland through extensive irrigation.
The Mormons' success was largely attributable to the settlers' strong sense of community.
The Second Great Awakening was only one source of the antebellum reform movements.
By the 1820s and 1830s, most of the Founding Fathers were dead, but they left a legacy of freedom and equality, expressed in part in the Declaration of Independence as well as the Preamble to the Constitution.
In the 1830s, "We, the People" still meant white males.
Many women were active in the abolitionist movement, and it was their exclusion from participation at a worldwide antislavery convention held in London in 1840 that convinced women like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott to hold the first women's rights convention in 1848 in Seneca Falls in upstate New York.
Horace Mann was instrumental in pushing for public education and education reform in general. He lengthened the school year, established the first "normal school" for teacher training, and used the first standardized books in education.
Before the 1830s, few whites fought aggressively for the liberation of the enslaved people.
The Quakers believed slavery to be morally wrong and argued for its end.
Most other antislavery whites sought gradual abolition, coupled with colonization, a movement to return Black people to Africa.
The religious and moral fervor that accompanied the Second Great Awakening, however, persuaded more and more whites, particularly Northerners, that slavery was a great evil.
White abolitionists divided into two groups: Moderates wanted emancipation to take place slowly and with the cooperation of slave owners, while immediatists wanted emancipation at once.
Abolitionism is an important topic on every AP U.S. History Exam.
But it is worth noting that, right up to the Civil War, abolitionists were widely considered extremists.
Far and away the leading reform movement of the time was the temperance movement.
Nearly all abolitionists believed in temperance; few supporters of temperance were abolitionists.
The abolition movement succeeded, slavery is now illegal, but the success of the temperance movement was short-lived (Prohibition lasted only from 1920 to 1933).
1844 U.S. Election
Candidates: James Polk (Democrat) vs. Henry Clay (Whig)
Party Platforms
Whigs:
Internal Improvements
Bridges
Harbors
Canals
Vision: Civilized lands with bustling towns and factories (e.g. New England)
Democrats:
Expansionists
Borders pushed outward
Private ownership of newly added land (e.g. isolated plantations in the South)
No government involvement in newly added land
Election Results
Close election
Polk wins
The Polk Presidency
Goals
Restore government funds in Treasury (vs. pet banks under Jackson)
Reduce tariffs
Accomplished by end of 1846
Texas and Oregon
Proposed annexation by President Tyler (last days of administration)
Northern congressmen alarmed (potential 5 slave states below Missouri Compromise line)
Demanded annexation of entire Oregon Country
"54°40´ or Fight" demands, but Polk recognizes possibility of two territorial wars
Conceded on demands for expansion into Canada
Negotiated reasonable American-Canadian border
Oregon Treaty signed with Great Britain in 1846
Acquired peaceful ownership of Oregon, Washington, and parts of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana
Established current northern border of the region
Mexican-American War
Efforts to claim Southwest from Mexico (failed attempt to buy territory)
Challenged Mexican authorities on Texas border
Mexican attack on American troops
Used border attack to argue for declaration of war
Declared war by Congress in 1846
Whigs (e.g. Abraham Lincoln) questioned Polk's claim of Mexican first fire
War began in 1846
Mexican-American War & Public Opinion
Northerners: feared new states in West would be slave states, thus tipping balance in favor of proslavery forces
Opponents: believed war was provoked by slaveholders, resulting in slave owners having control over government
Referenced as "Slave Power" by suspicious Northerners
Gag rule in 1836 raised suspicions of Slave Power
Wilmot Proviso: Congressional bill to prohibit extension of slavery in territories gained from Mexico
House vote fell along sectional lines: Northern in favor, Southern opposed
Result in Free-Soil Party: regional, single-issue party opposed to slavery expansion (competition with slave labor)
Mexican War: successful for American forces, resulted in Mexican Cession (Southwest land) for $15 million
Gadsden Purchase ($10 million): southern regions of modern Arizona and New Mexico for transcontinental railroad
Slavery Expansion & Debates
Addition of new territory increased nation's potential wealth, but posed problems regarding slavery status
East of Mississippi: evenly divided between lands suited for plantation agriculture (slavery) and those not
West of Mississippi: not suitable for traditional plantation crops
Southerners: saw future where slavery was confined to southeast quarter and outvoted by free-soil advocates
Tried to open up more areas to slavery through popular sovereignty
Territories decide by vote whether to allow slavery within borders.
Background
Sectional strife over new territories started as the ink was drying on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
During the Gold Rush, settlers had flooded into California and it wanted statehood with a constitution prohibiting slavery, opposed by South
Debate grew hostile leading to discussion of secession among southern legislators
Major Players
Henry Clay, Whig Senator from Kentucky
Drafted and proposed the Compromise of 1850
Clarified the final boundaries of Texas
Proposed banning slavery in the entire Mexican Cession and wanted stringent Fugitive Slave Act
John Calhoun, Democrat Senator from South Carolina
Defender of slavery and opposed the Compromise
Advocate for states’ rights and secession, popular sovereignty for Mexican Cession territories
Daniel Webster, Whig Senator from Massachusetts
Supported the Compromise to preserve the Union and avert Civil War
Characterized himself "as an American" in the Seventh of March speech
Risked offending abolitionist voter base by accepting the Compromise
Stephen Douglas, Democrat
Worked with Henry Clay to hammer out a workable solution, the Compromise of 1850
The Compromise of 1850
Defeated in Congress when presented as a complete package
Douglas broke the package into separate bills and managed to get majority support for each
Admitted California as a free state and stronger fugitive slave law enacted
Created the territories of Utah and New Mexico, left status of slavery up to each territory to decide
Abolished slave trade, not slavery itself, in Washington, D.C.
Issues with the Compromise
Definition of popular sovereignty was vague and different interpretations by Northerners and Southerners
Fugitive slave law made it easier to retrieve escaped enslaved people, but required cooperation from citizens of free states and seen as immoral
Increase in Antislavery Sentiments
Publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852
Sentimental novel depicting plantation life based on information from abolitionist friends
Sold over a million copies and adapted into popular plays that toured America and Europe
Powerful piece of propaganda awakening antislavery sentiment in millions who had never thought about the issue before
The Kansas-Nebraska Act and “Bleeding Kansas”
The Kansas-Nebraska Act was enacted in 1854 to establish civil authority and secure land in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, where no civil authority existed.
The act was promoted by Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas to bring money and jobs to his home state through the termination of the transcontinental railway in Illinois.
The act was passed despite objections from antislavery Whigs and Democrats, leading to the weakening of the Fugitive Slave Act through personal liberty laws in northern states.
The act drove the final stake into the heart of the Whig Party and led to the formation of the Republican Party, which aimed to keep slavery out of the territories and appeal to a wider constituency through a range of issues.
The American party (also known as the Know-Nothings) was formed around the issue of nativism, but the party self-destructed over disagreement about slavery.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act led to violence in the territories, as abolitionists and proslavery groups rushed in and both antislavery and proslavery constitutions were sent to Washington.
Kansas became known as "Bleeding Kansas" or "Bloody Kansas" due to the conflict between the two sides, which resulted in the deaths of over 200 people.
The events in Kansas further polarized the nation, leading to the election of James Buchanan as the 1856 Democratic candidate. Buchanan won the election, carrying the South, while the Republicans carried the North.
Buchanan, Dred Scott, and the Election of 1860
James Buchanan was US president from 1857-1861 and worked to maintain the status quo by enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act and opposing abolitionist activism.
Dred Scott v. Sandford was a case heard by the Supreme Court two days after Buchanan took office, where Scott, a former slave, sued for his freedom. The Court ruled that enslaved people were property, not citizens, and that Congress couldn't regulate slavery in the territories.
The Dred Scott decision was a major victory for Southerners and a turning point in the decade of crisis, it was vehemently denounced in the North as further proof of a Slave Power.
The 1858 Illinois Senate race between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas was nationally watched, with Lincoln delivering his "House Divided" speech and Douglas damaging his political career with his ambiguous stance on popular sovereignty.
John Brown’s raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859 and his subsequent execution sparked northern abolitionist support.
The 1860 Democratic convention split between Northern Democrats supporting Douglas and Southerners supporting Breckinridge.
The election of 1860 showed the nation was on the brink of fracture, with Lincoln and Douglas contesting the North, and Breckinridge representing the South.
Civil War Era
Background
Slavery was the central issue, but not the only or explicitly stated reason for the Civil War
Four Border States (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) were slave states that fought for the Union
Northerners fought to preserve the Union, while Southerners fought for states’ rights
Lincoln's views on slavery evolved
As late as 1862, Lincoln's primary goal was to save the Union, not necessarily abolish slavery
Battles
Battle of Antietam
First battle fought in the East where the Union wasn't completely defeated
Union claimed victory and showed Britain and France that they weren't a lost cause
Gave Lincoln platform to announce the Emancipation Proclamation
Battle of Gettysburg
Most northern point the Confederacy had reached at the time
Lee's troops suffered massive casualties and were forced to retreat
Boosted confidence for the Union
Gettysburg Address
Delivered four months after Battle of Gettysburg
Redefined the War as a struggle for human equality, not just preservation of Union
Influence of Political, Economic, and Social Factors
The Civil War impacted not only the battlefields, but also the political, economic, and social realms
Political and diplomatic consequences of battles like Antietam and Gettysburg
Political, social, and economic conditions influenced the outcome of the war
The Civil War and the Confederacy
Central Control Under the Confederacy
Confederate government brought southern states under greater central control
Jefferson Davis took control of southern economy and imposed taxes
Davis took control of transportation and created large bureaucracy to oversee economic developments
Declared martial law and suspended habeas corpus to maintain control
Lincoln was using similar steps in the North, causing chafing in the Confederacy
Economic Modernization and Challenges
Davis tried to modernize the southern economy, but lagged behind in industrialization
Rapid economic growth led to rapid inflation, causing poverty in the South
Confederacy imposed conscription, causing further poverty and class conflict
Wealthy were allowed to hire surrogates and were exempt from military service, causing increased tensions
Towards the End of the War
Class tensions led to widespread desertions from the Confederate Army
Southerners in small towns ignored the government and tried to carry on as if there was no war
Many resisted when asked to support passing troops
The Civil War and the Union
I. Economic Impacts A. Northern economy
Boosted by demand for war-related goods (uniforms, weapons)
Loss of southern markets initially harmed economy
War economy brought boom period
Entrepreneurs became wealthy, some through war profiteering
Corruption widespread, prompted congressional investigation B. Southern economy
Accelerated inflation rate (over 300%)
II. Workers and Unions A. Workers concerned about job security, formed unions B. Businesses opposed unions, blacklisted members, broke strikes C. Republican Party supported business, opposed to regulation
III. Government Powers A. Increase in central government power B. Lincoln's actions
Economic development programs without congressional approval
Government loans and grants to businesses, raised tariffs
Suspended writ of habeas corpus in border states
Printed national currency C. Treasury Secretary: Salmon P. Chase
Issued greenbacks, precursor to modern currency
Salmon P. Chase
Initially, neither the Union nor the Confederacy declared the Civil War to be about slavery
The Constitution protected slavery where it already existed, so many opponents were against extending slavery into new territories
Lincoln argued for gradual emancipation, compensation to slaveholders, and colonization of freed enslaved people
Radical Republicans in Congress wanted immediate emancipation and introduced confiscation acts in 1861 and 1862
The second confiscation act allowed the government to liberate all enslaved people, but Lincoln refused to enforce it
Lincoln's idea of gradual emancipation was based on a law in Pennsylvania passed in 1780
Enslaved people supported the Southern war effort by growing crops and cooking meals, leading to their liberation becoming a side effect of Union victory
Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862 after the Union victory at Antietam
The Emancipation Proclamation stated that the government would liberate all slaves in states "in rebellion" on January 1, 1863
It did not free slaves in border states or those already under Union control, and allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union without giving up slavery
The Proclamation declared the Civil War as a war against slavery and changed its purpose
Lincoln supported complete emancipation and the Thirteenth Amendment before his reelection campaign
After his reelection, he tried to negotiate a settlement with Southern leaders for reentry into the Union and voting on the Thirteenth Amendment.
The Election of 1864 and the End of the Civil War
General Opinion
North and South both favored end of the war
George McClellan lost due to opposing majority of Democrats
Southern Population
Less than 1% owned over 100 enslaved people
Non-slaveholding farmers resented Confederacy and war
Northern Opinion
War Democrats: war necessary to preserve Union
Copperheads: accused Lincoln of national social revolution
Most violent opposition in New York City
Draft riots in 1863
Irish immigrants resentful of being drafted
Feared competition with former slaves for low-paying jobs
War Progress
Summer 1864 victories helped Lincoln's reelection
Union victory virtually assured by early spring 1865
Established Freedman's Bureau for newly liberated Black people
First federal, social welfare program in U.S. history
End of War
Confederate leaders surrendered in April 1865
John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln five days later
Devastating consequences for reunited nation
War Cost
Over 3 million men fought
Over 500,000 died
As many seriously wounded
Both governments ran up huge debts
South ravaged by Union soldiers
Sherman's March from Atlanta to sea in 1864
Union Army burned everything in its wake
Foreshadowed wide-scale warfare of 20th century
Political Impact
War permanently expanded role of government
Government grew rapidly to manage economy and war
Reconstruction
Reconstruction refers to the period of 1865-1877 and the process of readmitting southern states, rebuilding physical damage, and integrating newly freed Blacks into society
Lincoln's Ten-Percent Plan was a plan to allow southern states back into the Union after 10% of voters took an oath of allegiance and accepted the Thirteenth Amendment, but was seen as too lenient by Republicans
The Wade-Davis Bill provided for military rule in former Confederate states and required 50% of the electorate to swear an oath of allegiance, but was pocket vetoed by Lincoln and later died
Lincoln's and the Wade-Davis Bill did not make provisions for Black suffrage
With Lincoln's assassination, Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency and developed the Reconstruction Plan which required a loyalty oath but barred many former Confederate elite from taking it
Johnson's Reconstruction Plan was met with resistance from Congress, leading to his impeachment trial
Johnson's impeachment trial, the first of a U.S. President, was a result of political conflicts between Johnson and the Radical Republicans over Reconstruction policies.
The Failure of Reconstruction
General Overview:
Reconstruction had successes and failures
New state constitutions allowed all men to vote, elected government positions, public schools, and industrial development
Failure was due to high tax rates, propaganda war, corruption, and political scandals
Successes:
All southern men could vote
Elected government positions replaced appointed positions
Public schools and social institutions created
Industrial and rail development stimulated
Black people serving in southern governments
Failures:
High tax rates and public opposition
Propaganda war against Reconstruction
Corruption of Northerners and Southerners
Political scandals during Grant's administration
Political Scandals during Grant's Administration:
Black Friday, 1869
Credit Mobilier scandal, 1872
New York Custom House ring, 1872
Star Route frauds, 1872-1876
Sanborn incident, 1874
Pratt & Boyd scandal, 1875
Whiskey Ring, 1875
Delano affair, 1875
Trading post scandal, 1876
Alexander Cattell & Co. scandal, 1876
Safe burglary, 1876
Diverted public's attention from postwar conditions in the South
Civil War officially ended but a war of intimidation began by insurgent groups (Ku Klux Klan, White League)
Attorney General Amos Akerman declared the actions of these groups amount to war
Federal troops were sent in to oppose the Klan under the Enforcement Acts
Reconstruction did little to alter the South's power structure or redistribute wealth to freedmen
Federal government signaled early on it would ease up restrictions and President Grant enforced the law loosely
Supreme Court restricted the scope of the 14th and 15th Amendments, allowing for voting restrictions for Black people
President Grant's administration was corrupt and tarnished Reconstruction
1872 election, Liberal Republicans abandoned coalition supporting Reconstruction due to corruption
Grant moved closer to conciliation and several acts pardoned rebels
Southern Democrats regained control by 1876 and called themselves Redeemers, intending to reverse Republican policies
1876 election was contested, Samuel J. Tilden won popular vote but needed electoral vote
Compromise of 1877 was reached to resolve the election, Hayes won and ended military reconstruction, federal troops pulled out of Southern states
Military reconstruction ended, life for Black people became worse and took nearly 100 years for the federal government to fulfill the ideal of equality expressed in the Declaration of Independence.
Southern Blacks During and After Reconstruction
End of the Civil War
Ambiguous state of freedom
Most stayed on plantations as sharecroppers
Some searched for separated family members
Freedman’s Bureau assistance
Jobs and housing
Money and food for those in need
Schools established, including Fisk University and Howard University
Terribly underfunded with little impact once military reconstruction ended
Lack of Redistributed Land
Freedman’s Bureau attempted to establish labor contracting system
Failed, Blacks preferred sharecropping
Traded portion of crop for right to work someone else’s land
System worked at first, but landowners eventually abused it
Widespread at end of Reconstruction
No court would fairly try cases of sharecroppers vs. landowners
Sharecropping existed until mid-20th century, included more whites than Blacks
Progressive States
Mississippi had large Black population and was most progressive
Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce became first Black senators in 1870 and 1875
Robert Smalls founded Republican Party of South Carolina and served in U.S. House of Representatives in the 1880s
Key Vocabulary
Freedman’s Bureau
Sharecropping
Hiram Revels
Blanche K. Bruce
Robert Smalls
Thomas A. Edison's Workshop
Built in 1876 in Menlo Park, New Jersey
Produced important inventions of the century
Edison's greatest invention was the light bulb
Pioneer work in power plant development was immensely important
Light Bulb and Power Plants
Allowed for the extension of the workday (previously ended at sundown)
Wider availability of electricity
Created new uses for electricity for industry and home
Age of Invention
Last quarter of 19th century known as Age of Invention
Many technological advances made (e.g. Edison's)
Advances generated greater opportunities for mass production
Economic Growth
Economy grew at a tremendous rate
People known as "captains of industry" (or "robber barons") became extremely rich and powerful
Owned and controlled new manufacturing enterprises
Industrialization: introduction of faster machines in manufacturing leading to economies of scale and decreased cost per unit.
Assembly line production: employees performing repetitive tasks leading to increased efficiency but also dangerous working conditions and long working hours.
Corporate Consolidation: large businesses resulting from economies of scale and lack of government regulations, leading to monopolies and holding companies.
Horizontal Integration: combining smaller companies within the same industry to form a larger company through legal buyouts or illegal practices.
Vertical Integration: one company buys out all the factors of production from raw materials to finished product, still allowing competition in the marketplace.
Problems with Consolidation: required large amounts of money leading to financial panics and bank failures, public resentment, and government response in the form of antitrust legislation.
Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890: law forbidding "restraint of trade" combination, ambiguous wording leading to pro-business Supreme Court interpretation.
U.S. v. E. C. Knight Co. 1895: Court ruled that E. C. Knight, controlling 98% of the sugar refining plants, did not violate the Sherman Antitrust Act.
Gospel of Wealth: idea that wealth should be used for the betterment of society and not just for personal gain, advocated by Andrew Carnegie.
Factories and City Life
Factories were established in cities in the 19th century to reduce labor costs and maximize profits
Women and children were hired, as well as newly arrived immigrants in search of work
As a result, the cities suffered from poverty, crime, disease, and a lack of livable housing
Factories were dangerous, and there was no insurance or workmen's compensation
Middle class moved away to nicer neighborhoods, leaving mostly immigrants and migrants in the city
Majority of immigrants arrived from Southern and Eastern Europe starting from 1880
Ethnic neighborhoods, tenements were common, and minorities faced prejudice and limited job opportunities
Municipal governments were practically nonexistent, and services for the poor were provided by churches, private charities, and ethnic communities, or by corrupt political bosses
Bosses helped the poor find homes, jobs, apply for citizenship, and voting rights but at a high cost of criminal means
William "Boss" Tweed of Tammany Hall in New York City was a notorious political boss who embezzled millions of dollars through corruption
Widespread misery in cities led to the formation of labor unions to improve treatment of workers
Labor unions were considered radical and faced opposition from the government, businesses, and the courts
Knights of Labor was one of the first national labor unions, founded in 1869
Goals of the Knights of Labor included an 8-hour workday, equal pay for equal work, child labor laws, safety and sanitary codes, federal income tax, and more.
Knights of Labor
Advocated arbitration over strikes
Became increasingly violent in efforts to achieve goals
Popularity declined due to violence and association with political radicalism
Terrence Powderly, failed strikes, and Haymarket Square Riot contributed to decline
Public saw unions as subversive and violent
Homestead Steel Strike
Workers protested wage cut, refusal to form a union
Factory manager Henry Clay Frick locked out workers, hired replacements, and called in Pinkerton Detective force
Clash between Pinkertons and workers led to deaths and retreat of Pinkertons
Pennsylvania state militia ended strike, Frick hired new workers
Pullman Palace Car Factory Strike
Workers faced wage cut, increased housing costs
American Railway Union joined the strike, 250,000 railway workers walked off job, shutting down rail travel in 27 states
ARU president Eugene Debs refused to end strike despite court order
Debs convicted and jailed, became leader of American Socialist Party after release
American Federation of Labor (AFL)
Samuel Gompers, focused on bread and butter issues, higher wages and shorter workdays
Excluded unskilled workers, confederation of trade unions
Refused to accept immigrants, Black people, women among membership
Charitable Middle-Class Organizations
Lobbied local governments for building safety codes, better sanitation, public schools
Founded and lived in settlement houses in poor neighborhoods
Community centers providing schooling, childcare, cultural activities
Jane Addams, Hull House in Chicago, awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 1931
Improvement of Life
Wealthy and middle class improved while poor suffered
Access to luxuries, leisure time, popular diversions like sports, theater, vaudeville, movies
Growth of newspaper industry with Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst
Sensational reporting, yellow journalism became popular.
Advances in the Machine Age
Primarily affected northern cities
South During Machine Age
Agriculture continued as main form of labor
Textile mills and tobacco processing plants emerged
Majority of Southerners remained farmers
Postwar Economics in the South
Many farmers forced to sell land
Wealthy landowners bought and consolidated into larger farms
Landless farmers (Black & white) forced into sharecropping
Crop lien system designed to keep poor in debt
Unscrupulous landlords kept poor in virtual slavery
Booker T. Washington’s Atlanta Compromise Speech
Outlined hope for drawing near to white race
Pledge for patient, sympathetic help of Black race
Call for higher good (blotting out of racial animosities)
Desire for absolute justice and law obedience
Jim Crow Laws
Federal government exerting less influence
Numerous discriminatory laws passed by towns and cities
Supreme Court ruled Fourteenth Amendment did not protect Blacks from private discrimination
1883 - Court reversed Civil Rights Act of 1875
1896 - Supreme Court ruled “separate but equal” facilities were legal
Integration and Equal Rights
A far-off dream for most Black people
Booker T. Washington: Born into slavery, no illusions of white society accepting Blacks as equals
Promoted economic independence as means to improve Black lot
Founded Tuskegee Institute for vocational and industrial training for Black people
Accused of being an accommodationist
Refused to press for immediate equal rights
Reality of his time set his goals
Booker T. Washington vs. W. E. B. Du Bois
Washington's Atlanta Exposition speech
Washington viewed as submissive by Du Bois
Du Bois referred to speech as "The Atlanta Compromise"
The Railroads and Developments in the West
Ranchers and miners were growing industries in the western frontier
Ranchers drove their herds across the western plains and deserts, disregarding property rights and Native American rights to the land
Miners prospected for rich mines and sold their rights to mining companies when found
Lincoln challenged America to have a Transcontinental Railroad connecting the country within a decade (1863-1869)
Railroad construction was paid for by the public but the rail proprietors resisted government control of their industry
Railroad companies organized massive buffalo hunts, which nearly led to extinction of the species and caused conflict with Native Americans
Rails transformed depot towns into cities and facilitated faster travel, contact with ideas and technological advances from the East, and contributed to the Industrial Revolution
Rails also brought standardization of time telling through "railroad time" and time zones
Statehood of North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho was achieved by 1889
The result of the 1890 census prompted Turner's Frontier Thesis, which argued that the frontier shaped the American character, spirit, democracy, and provided a safety valve for urban areas
In the Great Plains, farming and ranching were the main forms of employment, aided by new farm machinery and mail-order retail
The Homestead Act and Morrill Land-Grant Act were passed by the federal government to attract settlers and develop the West
Agricultural science became a large industry in the US
The Nez Perce tribe in Oregon was forced to migrate to a reservation in Idaho, leading to resistance by Chief Joseph
With families and corporations heading West, government and conservation groups sought added protection of natural resources
U.S. Fish Commission was established to protect fish species, which led to the creation of National Parks and Forest Services.
National Politics
Gilded Age of American Politics:
Era between Reconstruction and 1900
Dubbed by Mark Twain
America appeared prosperous but wealth built on poverty of many
Shiny exterior of politics hiding corruption and patronage
Political machines, not municipal governments, ran cities
Big business bought votes in Congress and fleeced consumers
Workers had little protection from employer greed
Presidents were generally not corrupt but weak
Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Chester A. Arthur focused on civil service reform
Grover Cleveland believed in minimal government intervention
Benjamin Harrison and allies passed major legislation (meat inspection act, banning lotteries, battleships)
Activism led to public discomfort and return of Cleveland to White House
Regulating Business and Government:
First attempts at regulation in response to widespread corruption
States imposed railroad regulations due to price gouging
1877 Supreme Court upheld state law regulating railroads in Munn v. Illinois
Precedent for regulation in public interest established
1887 Congress passed first federal regulatory law (Interstate Commerce Act)
Set up the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroad activities
ICC was active until deregulated by Reagan administration in 1980s
Women's Suffrage:
Became an important political issue
Led by Susan B. Anthony
Bill introduced to Congress every year
Fight began in earnest
American Suffrage Association fought for state suffrage amendments
Partial successes achieved in gaining the vote on school issues
Women gained right to vote with 19th Amendment in 1920 (50 years after male suffrage)
Post-Civil War Era:
Increased production in both industrial and agricultural fronts
Drop in prices due to greater supply
Farmers faced trouble due to fixed payments in long-term debts
Farmers supported increased money supply for easier payments and inflation
Banks opposed the plan, preferring gold-backed money supply
Farmers' plan called for liberal use of silver coins (supported by western miners and midwestern/southern farmers)
Issue had elements of regionalism and class strife
Grange Movement and Farmers' Alliances:
Grange Movement founded in 1867, with over a million members by 1875
Cooperatives for farmers to buy machinery and sell crops as a group
Political endorsement and lobbying for legislation
Replaced by Farmers' Alliances, allowing women's political activism
Grew into political party People's Party (political arm of Populist movement)
Other groups formed by minority farmers (e.g. Las Gorras Blancas, Colored Farmers' Alliance)
People's Party:
1892 convention, with platform called the Omaha Platform
Call for silver coinage, government ownership of railroads and telegraphs, graduated income tax, direct election of senators, shorter workdays
1892 presidential candidate James Weaver received over 1 million votes
Populist goals gained popularity during the financial crisis of 1893-1897
Granger Laws:
Granger laws regulated the railroads in the 1870s and 1880s
Populist Movement:
1896 Populists backed Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan
Bryan ran on platform of free silver, loosening control of northern banking interests
Republicans allied with big businesses, McKinley received huge contributions from large companies
Bryan lost election, Populist movement declined with improved economy
Before the Civil War
Most Americans earned their living through farming
No federal income tax until 16th Amendment in 1913
Tariff was a huge controversy
Tariff of Abominations & Nullification Crisis
Tariff of Abominations (1828) caused Nullification Crisis during Jackson's first administration
Tariff after Civil War
Tariff dominated national politics
Industrialists demanded high tariffs to protect domestic industries
Farmers and laborers hurt by high tariffs
Democrats supported lower tariffs
Republicans advocated high protective tariffs
Tariff Laws
McKinley Tariff (1890) raised duties on imported goods almost 50%
Wilson-Gorman Tariff (1894) resembled McKinley Tariff
Tariff issue dominated congressional debate and had impact on foreign relations
Spanish-American War
Wilson-Gorman Tariff considered one of the causes of the Spanish-American War
Theodore Roosevelt
Assistant Secretary of Navy in 1898 during Spanish-American War
Ordered U.S. Pacific Fleet to Philippines, then led volunteer regiment in Cuba
Machine Age and American Production
American production capacity grew rapidly
America looked overseas for new markets due to increased nationalism and search for new markets
Expansionism & Imperialism
William H. Seward set precedent for increased American participation in Western Hemisphere
American businesses developed markets and production in Latin America, gained political power in region
Expansionism (business in regions) supported by most Americans, imperialism (control of another country) more controversial
Influence of Sea Power
Book by Captain Alfred T. Mahan, "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History" (1890) popularized idea of the New Navy
Successful foreign trade relied on access to foreign ports, colonies, and strong navy
After upgrading ships, U.S. turned attention to foreign acquisitions
U.S. Interest in Hawaii
Search for port along trade route to Asia attracted U.S. to Hawaii
American involvement began in 1870s with American sugar producers trading with Hawaiians
Hawaii economy collapsed in 1890s due to U.S. tariffs and dependence on trade with U.S.
White minority overthrew native government, U.S. annexed Hawaii, angering Japan (40% of Hawaii's residents were Japanese descent)
Cuban natives revolted against Spanish control, instigated by U.S. tampering with the Cuban economy
Cuban civil war followed and reported in detail by the Hearst newspaper
The explosion of American warship Maine in Havana harbor led to war with Spain
U.S. drove Spain out of Cuba and Philippines in the Spanish-American War
Spain ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the U.S. in the Treaty of Paris
U.S. claimed it wouldn't annex Cuba through Teller Amendment, but troops stayed and made Cuba include Platt Amendment in its new constitution
Platt Amendment granted U.S. control over Cuba's foreign affairs, U.S. troops eventually left in 1934 during FDR's administration
Control of the Philippines raised the question of annexation or independence
Arguments for annexation: Europe would conquer Philippines, U.S. moral obligation to "Christianize and civilize" Filipinos
Arguments against annexation: promote independence and democracy, U.S. no better than British tyrants they overthrew
Senate voted to annex the Philippines by a close margin, but Filipino nationalists responded with a guerrilla war
U.S. used brutal tactics to subdue the revolt and inflicted casualties on the civilian population
The U.S. granted the Philippines independence in 1946
The question arose as to the legal status of the native population in newly acquired territories, "Does the Constitution follow the flag?"
Supreme Court ruled through Insular Cases that the Constitution didn't follow the flag and Congress could administer each overseas possession as it chose
America hoped to gain entry into Asian markets through McKinley's Open Door Policy
The Populist and Progressive Movements
Populists:
Aggrieved farmers advocating radical reforms
Raised possibility of reform through government
Successes in local and national elections
Encouraged others to seek change through political action
Progressives:
Built on Populism's achievements and adopted some of its goals
Urban, middle-class reformers seeking government's role in reform
Greater success due to more economic and political power
Less intensification of regional and class differences compared to Populists
Roots of Progressivism:
Growing number of associations and organizations
Members were educated and middle class, offended by corruption and urban poverty
Boost from muckrakers' exposés of corporate greed and misconduct
Progressives' Successes:
Both local and national level changes
Campaigned for education and government regulation
New groups for fight against discrimination with mixed success
Women's suffrage movement gave birth to feminist movement
Wisconsin governor Robert La Follette led the way for Progressive state leaders
The Progressive Movement:
Prominent leader: President Theodore Roosevelt
Progressive income taxes to redistribute nation's wealth
Work-class Progressives' victories: work day limitations, minimum wage, child labor laws, housing codes
Adoption of ballot initiative, referendum, and recall election
President Theodore Roosevelt:
Prominent Progressive leader
Republican Party's choice for running mate in 1900 election
Succeeded McKinley after assassination in 1901.
Progressive Era
Progressive Era marked increasing involvement of federal government in daily life
Progressive presidents: Teddy Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson
The Progressive Era resulted in many reforms, including conservation, regulation of monopolies and trusts, and the establishment of federal standards in food and drug industries.
Teddy Roosevelt
Early on, showed liberal tendencies and was the first to use Sherman Antitrust Act against monopolies
Nicknamed "Trustbuster" for his efforts to break up monopolies
Encouraged Congress to pass Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act to protect workers and consumers
Created National Park Service and National Forest Service to conserve natural resources
William Howard Taft
Pursued monopolies even more aggressively than Roosevelt
Known for "dollar diplomacy" - securing favorable relationships with Latin American and East Asian countries by providing monetary loans
Became the only former president to serve on Supreme Court of the US as the 10th Chief Justice (1921-1930)
Split from Roosevelt in the 1912 Republican primary due to opposing policies
Woodrow Wilson
Distinguished himself from Teddy Roosevelt with his policies referred to as New Freedom
Argued that federal government had to assume greater control over business to protect man's freedom
Committed to restoring competition through greater government regulation of the economy and lowering the tariff
Created Federal Trade Commission, enforced Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, and helped create Federal Reserve System
Progressive movement ended after World War I, Spanish Flu outbreak of 1918, and a Red Scare
End of Progressive Era
Achieved many of its goals, which resulted in loss of support from interest groups whose ends were met
Some say the Progressive movement was brought to an end, in part, by its own success
Roosevelt's domestic policy differed from his predecessor, but he concurred with his foreign policy.
Roosevelt was an even more devout imperialist than McKinley, strongarming Cuba into accepting the Platt Amendment which committed Cuba to American control.
The US occupied Cuba for 10 years (1906-1922), causing anti-American sentiments.
Roosevelt's actions in Central America were equally interventionist, building a canal through the Central American isthmus and supporting the revolution in Panama for a better deal.
The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, also known as the Big Stick Policy, was used to justify repeated military intervention in Latin America due to the assertion of a threat to American security.
American foreign policy adhered to the Monroe Doctrine which asserted America's right to intervene in the Western Hemisphere to protect national security.
Woodrow Wilson won the election of 1912 with a policy of neutrality, but it posed immediate problems due to close relationships with England and relatively distant relationship with Germany and Austria-Hungary.
When war broke out in Europe, Wilson declared US policy of neutrality, but it was complicated due to the close relationship with England and their effective blockade.
Germany attempted to counter the blockade with submarines, but the sinking of the Lusitania led to condemnation from the government and public.
Wilson's efforts to stay out of the war and the events that ultimately drew the US into the conflict.
World War I and Government Expansion of Power
Government took control of telephone, telegraph, and rail industries
Created War Industry Board (WIB) to coordinate all aspects of industrial and agricultural production
WIB had mixed success due to being slow and inefficient
Curtailed individual civil liberties during the war
The Espionage Act and Sedition Act
Congress passed the Espionage Act in 1917 and the Sedition Act in 1918 in response to opposition to U.S. involvement in the war
Espionage Act prohibited interference with the war effort or draft through the U.S. mail system
Sedition Act made it illegal to try to prevent the sale of war bonds or speak disparagingly of the government, military, or Constitution
Laws violated the spirit of the First Amendment but were vague, giving the courts great leeway in interpretation
Schenck v. United States
Supreme Court upheld the Espionage Act in 1919 in three separate cases, the most notable being Schenck v. United States
Schenck was arrested and convicted for violating the Espionage Act by printing and mailing leaflets urging men to resist the draft
Supreme Court ruled that freedom of speech and civil liberties could be curtailed if actions posed a “clear and present danger” to others or the nation
Suppression of Unpopular Ideas
Laws soon became useful tools for suppression of anyone who voiced unpopular ideas
Era of increased paranoia due to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and fear of communist takeover
Radical labor unions and leaders branded enemies of the state and incarcerated
New government agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation, created to prevent radical takeover
Business and Labor Union Changes
Business assumed greater power while unions lost power
Strikebreakers and forceful tactics against unions increased under pretext of stamping out radicalism
The Palmer Raids
In early 1920, government raided suspected radical groups around the country in the Palmer Raids
Government abandoned all pretext of respecting civil liberties as agents raided union halls, pool halls, social clubs, and residences
Over 10,000 arrested in over 30 cities, but few weapons or bombs were found
500 immigrants were eventually deported
Committee on Public Information (CPI)
Government helped create frenzied atmosphere through its wartime propaganda arm, the Committee on Public Information (CPI)
CPI messages grew more sensational as the war progressed
Image of Germans as cold-blooded, baby-killing, power-hungry Huns created through lectures, movie theaters, newspapers, and magazines
Americans rejected all things German, changed name of sauerkraut to “liberty cabbage”
Acts of violence against German immigrants and Americans of German descent.
Wartime Opportunities for Women
Change in means of employment
Many women quit domestic work and started in factories
At one point, 20% of factory jobs held by women
End of workplace advances with return of veterans
The Great Migration
Black Southern people left for North for jobs in wartime manufacturing
Over 500,000 Black people left South for work
Many joined army, encouraged by W. E. B. Du Bois for inroad to social equality
Army segregated and assigned Black people mostly to menial labor
Fearful of integration, Black combat units assigned to French command
End of World War I
America's participation tipped balance in Allies' favor
Two years after America's entry, Germans ready to negotiate peace treaty
Wilson's Fourteen Points served as basis for initial negotiations
Called for free trade, reduction of arms, self-determination, end of colonialism, League of Nations
Treaty of Versailles punished Germany, left humiliated and in economic ruin
Created League of Nations, but much of Wilson's plan discarded
Wilson's return home greeted with opposition over League of Nations
Senate debate over Article X curtailed America's independence in foreign affairs
Senate split into Democrats (pro-League), Irreconcilables (opposed), Reservationists (compromise)
Democrats and Irreconcilables defeated treaty with Lodge Reservations
US not signatory of Treaty of Versailles, never joined League of Nations
America retreating into period of isolationism
Wilson attempted to muster popular support, suffered major stroke and treaty failed
Possible Success of League of Nations
Many wonder if League would have prevented World War II had US been a member
After World War I
Brief slump in American economy
Rapid growth from 1922
Electric motor drives prosperity
New industries arise to serve middle class
Pro-Business Republican Administrations
Increased comfort with large successful businesses
Department stores and automobile industry offer convenience and status
Government increasingly pro-business, regulatory agencies assist business instead of regulating
Decreased favor for labor unions, strikes suppressed by federal troops
Supreme Court nullified child labor restrictions and minimum wage law for women
Woodrow Wilson and Race
Outspoken white supremacist
Segregated federal government, wrote admiringly of KKK
Told racist jokes at Cabinet meetings
Presidents Harding, Coolidge, Hoover pursued pro-business policies
Teapot Dome Scandal with corrupt cabinet members
Harding liberal on civil liberty, Coolidge won election on "Coolidge prosperity" and continued conservative economic policies
Decline of Labor Unions
Pro-business atmosphere led to decline in popularity of labor unions
Drop in membership levels throughout decade
Efforts by businesses to woo workers with pension plans, profit sharing, and company events
Referred to as welfare capitalism.
Modern Culture
The automobile was a major consumer product in the 1920s and typified the new spirit of the nation
Henry Ford's assembly line and mass production made cars more affordable, leading to widespread ownership
Automobiles allowed people to move to the suburbs and transformed into a necessity
The impact of cars was tremendous, requiring the development of roadways and traffic enforcement
Radio also changed the nation's culture, with millions of families owning them and gathering to listen
Consumerism was fueled by the rise of household appliances and the advertising industry
Single-earner households pushed more women to enter the workforce, although most still remained in traditional roles
The flapper image emerged as a symbol of the Roaring Twenties and the new freedom for women
Entertainment saw growth in movies, sports, and literature with world-class authors like F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway
Literature reflected disillusionment with the opulence and excess of the 1920s
The Harlem Renaissance was a major cultural development in the largest Black neighborhood in New York City
The Harlem Renaissance was marked by the growth of theaters, cultural clubs, and newspapers
Jazz was popularized and became emblematic of the era, with Louis Armstrong as a major figure
1920s America:
Backlash and Nativism:
Ku Klux Klan grew to over 5 million members
Targeted Blacks, Jews, urbanites, and anyone whose behavior deviated from their narrow code of acceptable Christian behavior
Anti-immigration groups grew in strength
Targeted southern and Eastern European immigrants
Accusations of dangerous subversives intensified with Sacco and Vanzetti trial
US started setting limits and quotas to restrict immigration
Emergency Quota Act of 1924 set immigration quotas based on national origins
Discriminated against southern and Eastern European "new immigrants"
Societal Tensions:
Scopes Monkey Trial
Tennessee law forbade teaching evolution
John Thomas Scopes broke the law
Trial drew national attention with prominent attorneys Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan
Encapsulated debate over sticking with tradition vs. progress
Prohibition:
Banned manufacture, sale, and transport of alcoholic beverages
Roots in reform campaigns of 1830s
Mainstay of women's political agendas
18th Amendment outlawed American liquor industry
Resentment of government intrusion in private matter
Weakened by organized crime in producing and selling liquor
Gangster Era inspired many movies and television series
Prohibition repealed by 21st Amendment in 1933
Republicans nominate Herbert Hoover in 1928
Hoover predicts that poverty would soon be eradicated in America
October 1929 stock market crash triggers the Great Depression
Hoover and advisers underestimated the impact of the crash
Hoover believed the economy was sound, reassured public that only speculators would be hurt
Huge banks and corporations among the speculators, causing bankruptcy and unable to pay employees or guarantee bank deposits
Factors contributing to the Great Depression: Europe's economy due to WWI and reparations, overproduction leading to lay offs and low market value, production outstripping ability to buy, concentration of wealth and power in a few businessmen, government laxity in regulation
Depression had a calamitous effect on millions of Americans: job loss, savings loss, homeless and shantytowns, rural farmers struggled, drought and Dust Bowl, agrarian unrest, Farmers’ Holiday Association
Hoover initially opposed federal relief efforts, but later initiated a few programs and campaigned for works projects
Hawley-Smoot Tariff worsened the economy
Hoover had the Federal Emergency Relief Administration established to bail out large companies and banks
Hoover's most embarrassing moment: army attack on Bonus Expeditionary Force in 1932
Hoover's efforts not enough to secure re-election, defeated by FDR in 1932 election
FDR's interventionist government approach contrasted with Hoover's traditional conservative values.
Franklin D. Roosevelt's inaugural address declared war on the Depression
He asked for the same broad powers that presidents exercise during wars against foreign nations
Most famous line of the speech: "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified fear."
The New Deal was a result of a powerful presidency and public confidence in Roosevelt
The First New Deal took place during the first hundred days of Roosevelt's administration
The Emergency Banking Relief Bill put poorly managed banks under control of Treasury Department and granted government licenses to solvent banks
The Banking Act of 1933 created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to guarantee bank deposits
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) provided payments to farmers in return for cutting production, funded by increased taxes on food processors
Farm Credit Act provided loans to farmers in danger of foreclosure
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) consolidated businesses and coordinated activities to eliminate overproduction
Public Works Administration (PWA) set aside $3 billion to create jobs building roads, sewers, public housing units, etc.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided grants to states for their own PWA-like projects
The government took over the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and expanded its operations for the economic recovery of the region
Roosevelt's response to Great Depression was guided by Keynesian economics
Keynesian economics argued that government should embark on a program of deliberate deficit spending to revive the economy
Keynesian economics was successful during Roosevelt's administration and led to 30 years of economic expansion from 1945 to 1973
Conservatives:
Higher tax rates
Increase in government power over business
Removal of incentive for the poor to lift themselves out of poverty
Borrowing to finance programs, anathema to conservatives
Leftists, like Huey Long:
AAA policy of paying farmers not to grow is immoral
Government policy toward businesses too favorable
Blamed corporate greed for Depression, calling for nationalization of businesses
Huey Long Threat to FDR
Senator and governor of Louisiana
Promoted a plan similar to Social Security, gaining supporters
Assassinated in 1935
Supreme Court Dismantles First New Deal
Invalidated sections of NIRA in the "sick chicken case"
Codes were unconstitutional, executive legislation beyond limits of executive power
FDR argued that crisis of Depression warranted expansion of executive branch
Supreme Court struck down AAA in United States v. Butler
Roosevelt's Court-Packing Scheme
Attempted to increase Supreme Court size from 9 justices to 15
Wanted to pick justices who supported his policies
Rejected by Congress
Second New Deal
Emergency Relief Appropriation Act created WPA (later renamed Works Project Administration)
Generated over 8 million jobs, funded by government
Employed writers, photographers, and artists for public works and local/personal history projects
Summer of 1935 is called Roosevelt's Second Hundred Days
Passed legislation broadening NLRB powers, democratizing unions, punishing anti-union businesses
Created Social Security Administration for retirement benefits for workers, disabled, and families
Increased taxes on wealthy individuals and business profits
New Deal Coalition
Made up of union members, urbanites, underclass, and Black people (previously voted Republican)
Swept FDR back into office in 1936 with landslide victory
Held together until election of Reagan in 1980.
I. Judicial Reorganization Bill:
Proposed allowing Roosevelt to appoint new federal judges
Effort to pack courts with judges sympathetic to New Deal policies
Defeated in Democratic Congress
Intense criticism for trying to seize too much power
Situation worked itself out with retirements and appointment of liberal judges
II. Economic Problems:
1937 recession caused by cuts in government programs and tightened credit supply
Recession lasted for almost three years with increased unemployment rate
Forced Roosevelt to withdraw money from New Deal programs to fund military buildup
III. New Deal:
Debate among historians on whether New Deal worked or not
Arguments for New Deal:
Provided relief and escaped poverty for many people
Reforms in banking, finance, management/union relations
Took bold chances in conservative political climate
Arguments against New Deal:
Unemployment rate remained in double digits
Failed to solve unemployment problem
Too small and short-lived to have significant impact
Didn't benefit all equally, minorities particularly hurt by AAA and public works projects
IV. Accomplishments:
Passed Second Agricultural Adjustment Act and Fair Labor Standards Act
Remade America in banking, finance, management/union relations
Social welfare system stems from New Deal
Took bold chances in conservative political climate
After World War I, American foreign policy focused on promoting peace and independent internationalism.
The Washington Conference was held in 1921-1922 and resulted in a treaty that limited armaments and reaffirmed the Open Door Policy toward China.
In 1928, 62 nations signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which condemned war as a means of foreign policy.
The US tried to adopt a Good Neighbor Policy in Latin America in 1934, but continued to promote American interests through economic coercion and support of pro-American leaders.
The Platt Amendment was repealed during this time.
In Asia, the US had limited influence and was unable to stop Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
The US sold arms to China and called for an arms embargo on Japan when Japan went to war against China in 1937.
The US maintained a high-tariff protectionist policy throughout the 1920s.
The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act allowed the president to reduce tariffs for foreign policy goals.
Most favored nation (MFN) trade status was granted to eligible countries for the lowest tariff rate set by the US.
Isolationist sentiment grew due to the results of World War I and the findings of the Nye Commission.
The Nye Commission revealed unethical activities by American arms manufacturers, leading to the passage of neutrality acts.
Roosevelt poured money into the military and worked to assist the Allies within the limits of the neutrality acts.
By the 1940s, US foreign policy became increasingly less isolationist with the Lend-Lease Act and Roosevelt's efforts to supply the Allies.
Complicated military strategy and outcome of key battles played a significant role in WW2
No need to know much about battles, but important to know about wartime conferences between Allies
Grand Alliance between Soviet Union and West was tenuous
Manhattan Project of 1942 was research and development effort for atomic bombs
Soviet spies infiltrated the project
First meeting of "big three" (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) took place in Tehran in 1943
They planned Normandy invasion (D-Day) and division of defeated Germany into occupation zones
Stalin agreed to enter war against Japan after Hitler's defeat
Allies fought Germans primarily in Soviet Union and Mediterranean until D-Day invasion in France
Soviet Union incurred huge losses and sought to recoup by occupying Eastern Europe
Allies won war of attrition against Germans and accelerated victory in East by dropping atomic bombs on Japan
D-Day on June 6, 1944 was largest amphibious landing
Government acquired more power during WW2 through War Production Board and control over industry and labor
Labor Disputes Act of 1943 allowed government takeover of businesses deemed necessary to national security
Hollywood was enlisted to create propaganda films
Government size more than tripled during war
FDR signed Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, creating first peacetime draft in US history
WW2 affected almost every aspect of daily life and created new opportunities and tensions in American society
More than a million African Americans served in US military during WW2, but lived in segregated units
US army was not desegregated until after the war in 1948
Rosie the Riveter symbolized the millions of women who worked in war-related industrial jobs
Most women were expected to go back to traditional roles after soldiers returned home
Government restricted civil liberties, including internment of Japanese Americans from 1942 to end of war
Over 110,000 Asian Americans were imprisoned without charge based solely on ethnic background
Supreme Court upheld evacuation and internment of Japanese Americans as constitutional
Yalta and Potsdam Conferences
Yalta conference held in February 1945 between Allies (US, UK, USSR) to discuss the fate of postwar Europe
Soviet army occupied parts of Eastern Europe, and Stalin wanted to create a "buffer zone" with "friendly" nations
Allies agreed on a number of issues concerning borders and settlements and to help create the United Nations
Potsdam Conference
Held after the end of the war in Europe to decide on implementing the agreements of Yalta
Harry S. Truman represented the US after Roosevelt's death
Differences between US and USSR growing more pronounced
Allies created the Potsdam Declaration to establish the terms for Japan's surrender (removal of emperor from power)
Outcome of Conferences
USSR given a free hand in Eastern Europe with promise to hold "free and unfettered elections" after the war
Descent of Iron Curtain (division of Eastern and Western Europe) and beginning of Cold War
American-Soviet animosity led to US using atomic bombs against Japan
Fear of Soviet entry into Asian war and display of power, combined with tenacious Japanese resistance, influenced Truman's decision.
Survival of combatants and rebuilding of war-torn countries
Political and economic shape of the new world and formation of new political alliances
The Cold War was a power struggle between the two leading political-economic systems, capitalism and communism
The major powers, United States and Soviet Union, were the two new superpowers, but their ideologies made them enemies.
Truman's Foreign Policy:
Differences between Soviet and American goals became clearer after the war
Truman Doctrine and Containment Policy to prevent spread of communism
Marshall Plan - sent $12 billion to Europe to help rebuild its economy and promote economic growth
Formed NATO with Canada and Western European countries in 1949.
Berlin Crisis in 1948:
Germany was divided into 4 sectors after the war
Berlin was also divided into 4 sectors
The three Western Allies merged their sectors and planned to bring the country into the Western economy
Soviet response - imposed a blockade on Berlin
Truman ordered airlifts to keep the Western portion supplied with food and fuel
The blockade continued for close to a year and was a political liability for the Soviets, who eventually gave it up.
Red Scare and Anti-Communism in America
After World War I, anticommunism swept America during the Red Scare.
Truman ordered investigations of 3 million federal employees in search of "security risks."
Those found to have a potential Achilles’ heel (association with "known communists" or "moral" weaknesses) were dismissed without a hearing.
Alger Hiss, former State Department official, was found guilty of consorting with a communist spy.
Fear of the "enemy within" began to spread.
The Screen Actors Guild attempted to purge its own communists.
Rise of Joseph McCarthy
In 1950, McCarthy claimed to have a list of over 200 known communists working for the State Department.
He led a campaign of innuendo that ruined the lives of thousands of innocent people.
McCarthy held years of hearings with regard to subversion, not just in the government, but in education and the entertainment industry.
Industries created lists of those tainted by these charges, called blacklists.
Eisenhower was worried about McCarthy and refused to speak against him.
Downfall of McCarthy
McCarthy accused the Army of harboring communists and finally chose too powerful a target.
The Army fought back hard, with help from Edward R. Murrow’s television show, and made McCarthy look foolish in the Army-McCarthy hearings.
The public turned its back on McCarthy, and the era of McCarthyism ended.
Public distrust and fear of communism remained.
The End of War and its Effects on the Economy
The end of war led to the end of wartime production (Jeeps, airplanes, guns, bombs, and uniforms)
Businesses started laying off employees, leading to a rise in unemployment levels
People started spending more, causing prices to rise, with an inflation rate of 20% in 1946
The poor and unemployed were hit the hardest
Truman offered New Deal-style solutions but was met with conservatism in American politics
Deals offered by Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, and Harry Truman
Square Deal: Theodore Roosevelt promised to regulate business and restore competition
First New Deal: Franklin Roosevelt focused on immediate public relief and recovery of banks
Second New Deal: Franklin Roosevelt addressed shortcomings of the First New Deal and responded to changing political climate
Fair Deal: Harry Truman extended New Deal vision and provided provisions for WWII veteran reintegration into society (e.g. G.I. Bill)
The Rise of New Conservatism
Antiunionism emerged
Strike in essential industries (coal miners) led to layoffs, tensions rose
Truman seized mines when settlement couldn't be reached, which alienated labor
Threatened to draft railroad strikers, further alienating labor and one of the core constituencies of the Democratic coalition
Civil Rights and Truman's Alienation
Truman pursued a civil rights agenda, but upset many voters (especially in the South)
Convened President's Committee on Civil Rights, issued reports calling for end to segregation and poll taxes, more aggressive enforcement of antilynching laws
Issued executive orders forbidding racial discrimination in federal hiring, desegregating Armed Forces
Advances in civil rights provoked an outbreak of racism in the South
Anger among Core Democratic Constituencies
Labor, consumers, Southerners all upset with Truman
Republicans take control of 80th Congress in 1946 midterm elections
Truman's popularity receives boost from conservative Republican-dominated Congress
Passes anti-labor acts, Taft-Hartley Act restricts labor rights, gives government power to intervene in strikes
Rebukes Truman's efforts to pass health care reform, aid schools, farmers, elderly, disabled, promote civil rights for Black people
Truman's Re-election Victory
Truman trails chief opponent, Thomas Dewey, in election
Makes brilliant political move by recalling the conservative Congress and challenging them to enact their platform
Congress meets for two weeks and does not pass significant legislation
Truman goes on grueling public appearance campaign deriding the "do-nothing" 80th Congress
Wins re-election, coattails carry Democratic majority into Congress
Introduction:
The Korean War began in June of 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea.
The U.S. took swift countermeasures, intending to repel the invasion but later trying to reunify Korea.
U.S. troops attacked North Korea under the umbrella of the United Nations, which led to China's entry into the war.
U.S. Involvement:
Truman's Early Decisions: Truman decided to attempt a reunification of Korea after early military successes.
China's Entry: China entered the war, pushing American and South Korean troops back to near the original border.
MacArthur's Recommendation: U.S. commander Douglas MacArthur recommended an all-out confrontation with China.
Truman's Decision: Truman decided against MacArthur's recommendation, thinking a war with China would be imprudent.
MacArthur's Firing: MacArthur started criticizing the president publicly, which led to his firing for insubordination.
Political Impact:
MacArthur's Popularity: MacArthur was very popular in the U.S., and his firing hurt Truman politically.
Peace Talks: Peace talks began soon after, but the war dragged on for two more years.
1952 Presidential Election: The Republicans chose Dwight D. Eisenhower, a war hero, in the 1952 presidential election.
Truman's Unpopularity: Truman was unpopular, and America was ready for a change.
Eisenhower's Victory: Eisenhower easily beat Democratic challenger Adlai Stevenson.
Societal Values:
Consensus of values across much of America
Americans believed in the superiority of their country
Communism was perceived as evil and a threat to be stopped
The good life was defined as having a decent job, a suburban home, and access to modern conveniences (consumerism)
G.I. Bill of Rights:
Serviceman's Readjustment Act enacted in 1944
Provided allowance for educational and living expenses for returning soldiers and veterans
Helped many Americans achieve the American dream
Stimulated postwar economic growth by providing low-cost loans for homes, farms, or small businesses
Civil Rights Movement:
Built on the advances of the 1940s
Met violent resistance
Economic Recessions:
Era plagued by frequent economic recessions
Spiritual Unrest:
Emergence of Beat poetry and novels (e.g. "Howl," On the Road)
Teen movies (e.g. Blackboard Jungle, The Wild One, Rebel Without a Cause)
Rock 'n' Roll music (Elvis Presley, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry)
Eisenhower took office with intentions of imposing conservative values on the expanding federal government
Goals included balancing the budget, reducing federal spending and easing business regulation
Military buildup for the Cold War prevented major cuts to the military budget
Popularity of New Deal programs and circumstances required increasing Social Security recipients and benefits
Started development of the Interstate Highway System, which promoted tourism and suburban development at high cost
Only balanced the federal budget three times in eight years
Domestic issues involving minorities:
Eisenhower's "termination" policy aimed to liquidate reservations and end federal support for Native Americans
Policy failed and was stopped in the 60s, leading to depletion and impoverishment of some tribes
Civil rights movement had landmark events:
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"
Eisenhower personally disapproved of segregation but opposed rapid change, resulting in southern resistance
Supported the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960, strengthening voting rights and punishments for crimes against Blacks
Montgomery bus boycott (1955) led to Martin Luther King Jr's national prominence and the integration of city buses
King encouraged peaceful protests, leading to the 1960 Greensboro sit-in movement against segregation
Eisenhower Administration Cold War Policy
Policy of Containment:
Rebranded as "Liberation" to sound more intimidating
Threat of freeing Eastern Europe from Soviet control
Massive Retaliation:
Threat of nuclear attack if Soviets dared to challenge US
Deterrence:
Soviet fear of massive retaliation prevents challenges to US
Leads to arms race
Knowledge of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) prevents deployment of nuclear weapons
Brinksmanship:
Escalation of confrontations with Soviet Union towards war
Domino Theory:
Spread of communism had to be checked in Southeast Asia
South Vietnam falling to communism would lead to quick fall of surrounding nations
Tensions During the Decade
Cold War tensions remained high throughout the decade
Death of Joseph Stalin:
Eisenhower hoped for improvement in American-Soviet relations
Initially, new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev offered hope
Soviet Client States:
Khrushchev's "peaceful coexistence" message taken as sign of weakness
Rebellions in Poland and Hungary
Soviet crushing of uprisings returns US-Soviet relations to Stalin Era
Heightened Anxieties:
Soviet advancements in nuclear arms and space flight
US creates and funds NASA in response to Soviet advancements
World War II and the Third World
Europe's overseas empires broke up after World War II
Numerous countries in Africa, Asia, and South America gained independence from European domination and became known as the Third World
America and the Soviet Union sought to bring Third World countries into their sphere of influence
Both superpowers prized Third World countries with strategic locations and military bases
Nationalism swept through most Third World nations, making it difficult for the superpowers to make major inroads
Third World nations regarded both America and the Soviet Union with suspicion and distrust
America's Influence in the Third World
America attempted to expand its influence through foreign aid (e.g. Aswan Dam in Egypt)
Nationalist leader Gamal Nasser suspected Western motives and turned to the Soviet Union for aid
President Eisenhower played a role in the Suez Canal crisis and pressured Britain and France to withdraw
CIA used covert operations (disinformation, bribing politicians, influencing local business and politics) to increase American influence abroad
CIA helped overthrow anti-American governments in Iran and Guatemala and tried (unsuccessfully) to assassinate Fidel Castro in Cuba
Election of 1960
Richard Nixon (Republican) vs John F. Kennedy (Democrat)
Both campaigned against communist menace and each other
Kennedy won due to youth, good looks, choice of Lyndon Johnson as running mate, and television debate performance
Nixon's campaign hurt by vice presidency and lack of endorsement from Eisenhower
Close election, with possible voter fraud
Eisenhower's Farewell Address
Warning against the military-industrial complex
Combination of military and profitable arms industries created a powerful alliance
Interests of this alliance did not align with general public
Later seen as identification of those responsible for escalation of Vietnam War
1960s started with hope and excitement, "Camelot" era
Kennedy and his administration were seen as young, ambitious, and intellectual
Dubbed as "the best and the brightest" by the press
Kennedy's youth, good looks, and wit earned him the adoration of millions
New Frontier program promised to conquer poverty, racism, and other contemporary issues
By 1969, America was bitterly divided
Conflicts centered around the Vietnam War and Black people's struggle for civil rights
Kennedy perceived Soviet Union and communism as the major threats to US security
Every major foreign policy issue related to Cold War concerns
Two major events heightened American-Soviet tensions: Cuba and Berlin Wall
Kennedy inherited the Cuban issue and attempted to solve it with the ill-fated Bay of Pigs invasion
Invasion failed and led to diminished America's stature with allies
Berlin Wall symbolized the repressive nature of communism and divide between democratic West and communist East
JFK's "Ich bin ein Berliner" statement was not a grammatical error
Cuban missile crisis in 1962 brought US and Soviet Union closest to military confrontation
Kennedy imposed naval quarantine on Cuba to prevent further weapons shipments and demanded Soviet withdrawal
Brinkmanship policy resulted in peaceful resolution of the crisis
President John F. Kennedy: The New Frontier and Civil Rights
Kennedy's Presidency:
Began with a promise of conquering a New Frontier
Pushed through legislation to improve the country's welfare
Increased unemployment benefits
Expanded Social Security
Raised minimum wage
Aided distressed farmers
Civil Rights Agenda:
Varied results
Supported women's rights
Established presidential commission to remove obstacles to women's participation in society
Congress passed the Equal Pay Act (1963) requiring equal pay for equal work
Employers still found ways to bypass the law
Embraced Black civil rights late in his presidency
Enforced desegregation at the University of Alabama and the University of Mississippi
Asked Congress to outlaw segregation in all public facilities
Assassination in November 1963
JFK's Actions on Civil Rights:
Ordered Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to make public transportation integrated
Active period for the civil rights movement
Nongovernmental organizations mobilized to build on previous decade's gains
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) staged sit-ins and boycotts
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized the Freedom Riders
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) did grassroots work for voter registration and antisegregationist activism
Civil rights groups faced resistance
Mississippi's NAACP director, Medgar Evers, was shot to death by an anti-integrationist
Demonstrators in Montgomery, Alabama, were assaulted by police and fire department using attack dogs and fire hoses
News reports of these events helped bolster the movement
JFK's assassination also had an impact on the civil rights movement
President Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights Movement
Unlike Kennedy, Johnson took immediate action to demonstrate his commitment to the civil rights movement
Lobbied for the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, or gender
Most comprehensive piece of civil rights legislation in U.S. history
Prohibited discrimination in employment and public facilities
Established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce employment clause
Signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965
Cracked down on states denying Black people the right to vote
Signed another civil rights act banning discrimination in housing
Extended voting rights to Native Americans living under tribal governments
Believed social injustice stemmed from social inequality and advocated for civil rights in employment
Lobbied for and won the Economic Opportunity Act
Appropriated nearly $1 billion for poverty relief
Expanded antipoverty program after election victory
Project Head Start
Upward Bound
Job Corps
Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA)
Legal Services for the Poor
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
Increased federal aid to low-income renters
Built more federal housing projects
Established Medicare and Medicaid
Great Society - sweeping change to U.S. government since the New Deal
Increased tax revenues from expanding economy funded the whole package
Objections to increase in government activity
Extension of civil rights met with bigoted opposition, especially in the South
Huge coalition that gave Johnson victory and mandate for change started to fall apart due to successes and bitter national debate over Vietnam
Civil Rights Movement in the Early 1960s
Legislative Successes:
Passed under Johnson’s Great Society program
Provided government support
Victories in the Courts:
Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren
Warren Court was extremely liberal
Worked to enforce voting rights for Black people
Forced states to redraw congressional districts for greater minority representation
Prohibited school prayer
Protected the right to privacy
Rulings on rights of the accused: Gideon v. Wainwright, Miranda v. Arizona
Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the Constitution:
Ratified on January 23, 1964
Banned the use of the poll tax in all elections
Resistance to Change:
Strong opposition from state governments, police, and white citizens
Examples of police violence: Selma, Birmingham
Racists bombed Black churches and homes of civil rights activists
Mississippi: three civil rights workers murdered by local police department
Growing Outrage in the Black Community:
Activists abandon Martin Luther King's nonviolent strategy
Malcolm X advocates "by any means necessary"
SNCC and CORE expel white members and advocate Black Power
Black Panthers at forefront of movement
Fragmentation of the Movement:
1968: King assassinated
Some continue to advocate integration and peaceful change
Others argue for empowerment through segregation and aggression
Young whites, particularly college students, challenged the status quo of middle-class life in the 1960s
The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was formed in 1962 with leftist political agenda
New Left ideals included elimination of poverty and racism, and end to Cold War politics
The Free Speech movement was formed at the University of California, Berkeley in 1964
The Beat Movement started in the 1950s and challenged conservatism with works promoting bohemian lifestyles, drug use and non-traditional art
The New Left groups were male-dominated and insensitive to women's rights
Betty Friedan's book "The Feminine Mystique" challenged assumptions about women's place in society and restarted the women's movement
National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed in 1966 to fight for legislative changes, including the Equal Rights Amendment
The modern movement for gay rights began in the 1960s, with the first Gay Pride parades
Feminists fought against discrimination in hiring, pay, college admissions, and financial aid, and control of reproductive rights
The Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade (1973) enabled women to obtain abortions in all 50 states within the first trimester
The Supreme Court established a constitutional right to privacy in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Mario Savio's speech on December 3, 1964, spoke against "the operation of the machine"
Rebellion against "the establishment" also took the form of nonconformity, typified by the counterculture of the hippies
Counterculture of the hippies included long hair, tie-dyed shirts, ripped jeans, drug use, communal living, and "free love"
Environmental issues rose to prominence with the publication of Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring"
Legislators responded to environmental concerns with the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970
U.S. Policy on Communism
Asserted right to intervene anywhere to stop spread of communism and protect American interests
Origins of U.S. Involvement in Vietnam
Vietnam was French colony until World War II
Exported resources for French consumption
Nationalist Vietnamese resistance (Vietminh) led by Ho Chi Minh
Ho asked Woodrow Wilson for help in expelling French, but was ignored
Japan invaded and ended French control, but U.S. did not recognize Vietnamese independence or Ho's government
U.S. recognized Bao Dai's government installed by French in South
Vietnam fought war for independence against French (1946-1954)
U.S. financed French war effort in Indochina (80%)
Geneva Accords (1954) divided Vietnam at 17th parallel, temporarily
U.S. sabotaged peace agreement by forming alliance with Ngo Dinh Diem and sabotaging elections
Formed Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) for South Vietnam's defense
Downward Spiral of the Situation
Diem was vicious leader, imprisoning political enemies, closing newspapers, and attracting Vietcong
U.S. continued to support Diem and South Vietnam economically
Kennedy increased involvement by sending in military advisors
CIA staged a coup to overthrow Diem's government in 1963
Diem and his brother killed during coup
Kennedy appalled by outcome, assassinated a few weeks later
Johnson took control of America's war efforts.
Johnson Administration
Opportunity to withdraw American forces, but Kennedy's advisers convinced Johnson to remain committed to total victory
Supported second coup in South Vietnam; US not selective about who ran country as long as it wasn't Communist
US Army started bombing Laos (North Vietnamese weapons shipment)
Reports of North Vietnamese firing on American destroyer ships in Gulf of Tonkin (not confirmed)
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed, allowed president to take necessary measures to protect American interests
First ground troops arrived in early 1965
Flooded region with American troops, authorized massive bombing raids into North Vietnam (Operation Rolling Thunder)
Chemical agents like Agent Orange and Napalm used in bombing
US took over war effort from South Vietnamese, resulting in Americanization of the war
As the war ground on, opposition to the war grew, protests increased, and young men either ignored draft or fled to avoid service
Opposition to the War
Johnson's advisers continued to assure him war was winnable until the North Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive in January 1968
Tet Offensive was a major turning point in the war, North Vietnamese and Vietcong nearly captured American embassy in Saigon
Tet Offensive made the American public believe they were being lied to and the war was not winnable
The My Lai Massacre occurred in 1968, US soldiers abused, tortured, and murdered innocent civilians
When story of massacre came to light in 1969, public was outraged, protests against the war grew angrier and more frequent
Johnson's Presidential Race Withdrawal
Johnson's association with the Vietnam War turned many Americans and people within his own party against him
Renomination would not have been easy, with challenges from McCarthy and Kennedy
Withdrawal opened the field to Vice President Hubert Humphrey
Civil Unrest After King Assassination
Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. sparked civil unrest and looting
Police ordered to shoot arsonists in Chicago, where Democratic convention would be held
King's assassination heightened tension surrounding race relations
Kerner Commission report stated that nation was moving toward two separate, unequal societies
Robert Kennedy Assassination
Robert Kennedy, front-runner for Democratic nomination, assassinated
Kennedy represented hope for many Americans as an advocate for the poor and critic of Vietnam War
Two assassinations convinced many that peaceful change from within political system was impossible
Democratic Convention Demonstrations
Disenchanted young Americans demonstrated against government policy at the Democratic Convention
Police ordered to break up crowds with tear gas, billy clubs, and rifles
Images of police clubbing citizens reached millions, reminiscent of police states America fought against
Convention chose pro-war Humphrey over antiwar McCarthy and refused to condemn war effort, alienating left-wing constituency
Republican and Third-Party Nominations
Republicans handed nomination to former Vice President Richard Nixon at peaceful convention
Alabama governor George Wallace ran segregationist third-party campaign, popular in the South
Wallace siphoning Humphrey's potential support in the South
Humphrey denounced Vietnam War late in campaign, but it was too little, too late
Election Result
One of the closest elections in history
Richard Nixon elected president
1960s & 1970s in America
Rollicking party filled with free love, new social ideas, and worthy political causes for young people.
Not everyone embraced the changes of the 1960s
Conservative resurgence began in the 1970s at grassroots level
Focus on single issues: ending abortion, criticizing affirmative action, emphasizing traditional gender roles and nuclear family
Older people suspicious of young questioning values of parents/grandparents
Religious people distrusted rejection of traditional morals and beliefs
Southern segregationists resisted civil rights movement
Some Americans tired of marches and protests, wanted return to peaceful way of life
Opposition to the Changes of the 1960s
Dismayed with civil rights movement, counterculture, and feminism
Alarmed by rising cost of social welfare programs created by New Deal and Johnson's Great Society
Phyllis Schlafly
Notable leader in Conservative reaction to the changes of the 1960s
Most well known for lobbying against the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution
ERA passed Congress, but never fully ratified due to efforts to quell it by Schlafly and supporters
Opposition to the ERA
Could lead to conscription of women into war, negatively affect women in divorce cases, allow men entry to women-only colleges and clubs
Influenced the opinions of many Americans, ERA was never fully ratified
Richard Nixon
Sought to appeal to Americans who did not fully embrace cultural and political changes of the 1960s and 1970s
Conservatives voted for Nixon in large numbers, hoping he would reverse trend of encroaching federal power
Some Southern Democrats voted for Nixon, distrusted newer liberal social policies of their party
Nixon Administration and Vietnam War
Promised to end American involvement in Vietnam through "Vietnamization"
Began withdrawing troops but increased air strikes
Believed in winning the war and ordered bombing raids and troops into Cambodia
American involvement lasted until 1973, peace treaty negotiated with North Vietnam
Outcome of the War
Negotiated peace crumbled, Saigon fell in 1975 and Vietnam united under communism
War Powers Resolution passed in 1973 to prevent future presidents from undeclared wars
Success in Foreign Policy
Increased trade with USSR and negotiated arms treaties
Improved relations with China through secret negotiations and opening trade
Used friendship with China as leverage against USSR
Contributions to Foreign Policy Vocabulary
Détente: policy of "openness" and cooperation among countries
Brief period of relaxed tensions between superpowers
Détente ended with Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
Nixon Doctrine: United States would withdraw from overseas commitments, rely on local government alliances to check communism.
Economic Woes
Period of stagflation (recession-inflation)
Nixon tried to combat with interventionist measures (price-and-wage freeze, increased federal spending)
Efforts failed to produce intended results
Political Tensions
Divided society between haves and have-nots, conservatives and progressives
Political rhetoric painted opposition as enemies of the "American way"
Confrontations on college campuses heightened tensions (Kent State University, Jackson State University)
Urban crime levels rose
1972 Election
Nixon won re-election in a landslide victory
Both houses of Congress remained under Democratic control
Indication of mixed feelings towards political leaders
Pentagon Papers
Top-secret government study of US involvement in Vietnam from World War II to 1968
Published by two major newspapers in the summer of 1971
Documents revealed numerous military miscalculations and lies told to the public
Nixon fought to prevent publication, concerned about effect on secret negotiations with North Vietnam, USSR, and China
Nixon lost the fight and increased his paranoia
The Plumbers
Created by Nixon to prevent leaks of classified documents
Undertook disgraceful projects such as burglarizing a psychiatrist's office
Sabotaged Democratic campaigns and botched a burglary of Democratic headquarters in Watergate Hotel
Watergate Scandal
White House effort to cover up the Watergate burglary
Senate hearing began in early 1973 and lasted for 1.5 years
Close advisers resigned, tried and convicted of felonies
Nixon secretly recorded all conversations in the White House
Legal battle over tapes lasted a year, with Supreme Court ordering Nixon to turn them over
Tapes revealed unsavory aspects of Nixon's character
Nixon resigned in August 1974 instead of facing impeachment proceedings
Vice President Gerald Ford took office and granted Nixon a presidential pardon
People
Henry Kissinger: Secretary of State under Nixon
Daniel Ellsberg: Government official who turned the Pentagon Papers over to the press
Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein: Investigative journalists for The Washington Post
Gerald Ford: Vice President and later President who granted Nixon a presidential pardon
President Gerald Ford
Became president after Nixon resigned
Replaced first vice president Spiro Agnew who resigned due to corruption charges
Selected Nelson Rockefeller as his Vice President
First time neither President nor Vice President elected by public
Pardon of Nixon
Brought Watergate era to a close
Cost Ford politically
Raised suspicions of a deal with Nixon
Economic Challenges
Weak economy
Oil embargo by Arab nations (OPEC) causing fuel price hikes
Inflation and increasing unemployment rate
Damaged credibility due to media, especially parodies by Chevy Chase on Saturday Night Live
Defeat in 1976 Election
Defeated by Democrat Jimmy Carter
Economic Problems during Jimmy Carter's Presidency
Weakening economy inherited by Carter
Inflation exceeded 10%
Interest rates approached 20%
Slow economic growth combined with inflation worsened stagflation
Failed to balance the federal budget
Increased cost of OPEC petroleum caused many economic problems
Efforts to Address Economic Problems
Increased funding for research into alternative sources of power
Created the Department of Energy to oversee these efforts
Many saw nuclear power as a solution to the energy crisis
Fears about nuclear power reinforced after failure of Three Mile Island
Foreign Policy Accomplishments
Brokered peace agreement between Israel and Egypt
Concluded arms agreement with the USSR
Foreign Policy Setbacks
Failed to force USSR withdrawal from Afghanistan
Flip-flopped in Nicaragua
Worst crisis was the Iran Hostage Crisis
Promotion of Human Rights
Made promotion of human rights a cornerstone of foreign policy
Negotiated treaty between US and Panama
Ratified the treaty in the Senate
Retirement and Legacy
Spent retirement working with organizations like Habitat for Humanity.
Late 1970s in America:
Many Americans grew tired of conflicts from previous decade
Uncomfortable with growing cynicism towards political leaders
Jimmy Carter's "crisis of confidence" speech (referred to as "malaise speech") disturbed many Americans
Ronald Reagan:
Saw nation was ready for change
1980 presidential campaign: presented himself as Washington "outsider" & Carter's opposite
Emphasized positive aspects of America vs. Carter blaming American self-indulgence and consumerism
Many voted for Reagan because of his "can-do" attitude, regardless of politics
1980 Election:
Reagan won by landslide
John Anderson's third-party candidacy attracted "protest vote" that might have gone to Carter
Ronald Reagan's Economic Policies:
Applied theory of supply-side economics
Believed reducing corporate taxes would lead to greater profits, job creation, and wealth trickle down
Large-scale deregulation in banking, industry, and environment
Across-the-board tax cut for all Americans
Effects of Reagan's Policies:
Little effect initially, country continued in recession for two years
Results mixed: inflation subsided, but criticism that rich getting richer and poor getting poorer
Rich used money saved on taxes to buy luxury items, rather than reinvesting in economy as suggested by supply-side economics
Ronald Reagan Administration
New Federalism Plan
Shift power from national government to states
States take complete responsibility for welfare, food stamps, and other social welfare programs
National government would assume entire cost of Medicaid
Goal was never accomplished
States feared increase in cost of state government
Military Spending Increase
Funded research into space-based missile shield system (Strategic Defense Initiative or SDI)
Escalated arms race with USSR
Historians debate contribution to end of Cold War
Increased Deficit
Tax cuts, increased military spending, and failure of New Federalism led to increase in federal budget deficit
Government spending increased, government revenues shrank
Government had to borrow money
Congress blamed deficit on tax cuts
Reagan blamed Congress for refusing to decrease funding for social welfare programs
Federal deficit reached record heights during Reagan administration
Foreign Policy Under Reagan
Ending the Cold War
Supported repressive regimes and right-wing insurgents
U.S. military led international invasion of Grenada
Priority: support for Contras in Nicaragua
Contras known for torturing and murdering civilians
Congress cut off aid, Reagan administration funded through other channels (Iran-Contra affair)
Constitutional crisis, debate over power of the purse and checks and balances
Marines sent to Lebanon as part of UN peacekeeping force
Suicide bomb killed 240 servicemen
Eventual pullout of troops
U.S.-Soviet Relations
Reagan's hard-line anticommunism initially led to deterioration in relations
Rhetorical war and escalated arms race
Adversaries eventually brought to bargaining table due to high cost
Gorbachev rose to power in Soviet Union
Economic policy of perestroika, social reforms of glasnost
Loosened Soviet control of Eastern Europe, increased personal liberties, allowed free-market commerce
Reagan and Gorbachev negotiated withdrawal of nuclear warheads from Europe
George Bush defeats Michael Dukakis
Bush calls for "kinder, gentler nation"
"Read my lips: No new taxes"
Progressive liberalism destroyed
"Liberalism" becomes "L word"
Feminism becomes "F word"
Conventional wisdom holds Americans returned to traditional values
Moral majority appeared to have spoken
End of Cold War
Berlin Wall dismantled, Soviet Union breakup
Bush sets course for US foreign policy into 21st century
Persian Gulf War
Saddam Hussein invades Kuwait
Washington reacts immediately
Bush builds consensus in Congress and assembles international coalition
Operation Desert Storm - massive air strikes against Iraqi targets
War ends quickly, few American casualties
Iraq required to submit to UN inspectors for WMD and chemical warfare production
Saddam Hussein remains in power
U.S. foreign policy focus on political stability in Middle East and human rights
Immigration has significantly affected the shape and tenor of American society
From the 1970s to today, the fastest-growing ethnic minorities are Hispanics and Asians
Hispanics now outnumber African Americans as the largest minority in the US
Growth of Asians and Hispanics fueled by immigration
The Immigration Act of 1965 contributed to the increase of immigration by relaxing restrictions on non-European immigration
Hispanics: Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua
Asians: Philippines, China, South Korea, India
Settled mostly in California, Texas, Florida, Southwest
Reasons for Immigration
Reuniting families
Employment of skilled workers (scientists) and political refugees
Employment of Cuban and Southeast Asian refugees from Fidel Castro’s revolution and the Vietnam War
Statistics
Number of foreign-born people living in the US went from 10 million to 31 million from 1970 to 2000
51% of foreign-born people were from Latin America, 27% from Asia
Impact on American Society
Heated debates on immigration policy, bilingual education, affirmative action
Discussions centered on illegal immigration, impact on the economy, reshaping society by new cultures, attitudes, and ideas
Tensions have led to measures to curb illegal immigration, abolish bilingual education, allow low-skilled and high-skilled workers on a temporary basis
The Simpson-Mazzoli Act in 1986 outlawed the employment of illegal immigrants and granted legal status to some illegal aliens
Guest worker programs like the Bracero program (1942-1964) aimed to curb illegal immigration by offering temporary employment to migrant farm workers
Unresolved Problems
Issues persist with illegal immigration
Guest worker programs face pressure to end from organized labor frustrated at decrease in wages
Demographic Changes in the US
Major demographic changes underway in the US
New waves of immigration leading to ethnic enclaves
Examples: Little Italy, Chinatown, Little Havana, Little Saigon
Increase in multilingual services and media catering to specific ethnic groups
Specifically, Hispanics and Asians
Political parties targeting Hispanics for potential political influence
Impact of Demographic Changes
Impact will be felt for generations to come
Ethnic Enclaves in the US
Little Italy in New York City
Chinatown in San Francisco
Little Havana in Miami, Florida
Little Saigon in Orange County, California
Services Catering to Ethnic Groups
Multilingual services
Media catering to Hispanics and Asians
William Jefferson Clinton was the 42nd President of the United States and the first Democrat to be elected after Jimmy Carter.
During his two terms, significant changes occurred in the way Americans do business due to the impact of globalization and advancements in digital technology.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was signed into law by Clinton in 1993, which aimed to eliminate trade barriers among the United States, Mexico, and Canada.
The 1994 Congressional Election saw the Republicans take back control of Congress, but their power was limited by Clinton's executive power.
The Clinton-Lewinsky scandal resulted in Clinton's impeachment, but he was acquitted by the Senate and remained in office to finish his second term.
Clinton's foreign policy aimed to protect human rights around the world, although he faced criticism for defending capitalism over democracy and turning a blind eye to human rights violations in China.
In 1999, Clinton supported a NATO bombing campaign in the former Yugoslavia against Slobodan Milosevic, who was eventually tried and convicted for crimes against humanity.
Other events that took place during Clinton's presidency include his "Don't ask, don't tell" policy for gays in the military, appointments of Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the Supreme Court, and the passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996.
A candidate must win a majority of electoral votes to win the presidency according to the Constitution
"Winner-take-all" system in most states
Possibility of winning popular vote nationwide but losing the presidency
Mishaps with voting procedure in Florida
Al Gore challenged the results
Supreme Court prevented a formal recount of the vote
George W. Bush elected
George W. Bush Administration
Rise in neoconservatism
Sharp opposition to paleoconservatism
Spread democracy and put American corporate interests first through military actions abroad
Global trade and open immigration seen as net positive
Criticized by both staunch liberals and paleoconservatives
Staunch liberals: excessive corporate power and global imperialism
Traditional conservatives: cost of military adventures, loss of domestic jobs, and unrestricted immigration
Loss of faith in the ability of the federal government to solve social and economic problems
Key Players
George W. Bush
Al Gore
John Quincy Adams
Samuel J. Tilden
Rutherford B. Hayes
Dick Cheney
Donald Rumsfeld
Paul Wolfowitz
Patrick J. Buchanan
Voting Rights Act and Amendment Ban Measures
Voting rights for African Americans improved dramatically
Increase from 20% registered to vote in 1960 to 62% by 1971
Elected Officials
African American mayors elected in cities in the 80s
Virginia elects first African American governor in 1990
First African American governor: P.B.S. Pinchback (LA, 15 days in 1872)
African American Representation in Congress
Shirley Chisholm was first African American woman elected to Congress in 1968
First African American to run for president: Shirley Chisholm (1972)
Jesse Jackson ran for Democratic nomination in 1984 and 1988
In 2000, 1,540 African American legislators (10% of total)
Powerful African American Political Figures
Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice: Secretaries of State under George W. Bush
Thurgood Marshall appointed to Supreme Court by Lyndon Johnson in 1960s
Historic Election: Barack Obama as President
Elected in 2008 as first African American president of the United States
Urban Migration and Trends in the 1950s and 1960s
People moved to cities for employment and cheaper housing
African Americans moved to northern and western cities, like during WWI and II
Other minorities, including Latin American immigrants, drawn to cities for similar reasons
Urban problems like overcrowding, high crime, inadequate housing and commercial areas
White Flight in the 1970s and 1980s
Trend of mostly white, middle-class Americans leaving cities for suburbs
Attracted by open spaces, shopping malls, and better-funded schools
Businesses and industries followed, leading to insufficient funds for cities
Poor people and racial minorities remained in cities
Urban Riots and Racial Tensions
Televised urban riots in the 1960s heightened racial tensions (LA, Chicago, NY after MLK Jr. assassination)
Worst urban riot occurred in 1992 in South Central LA after acquittal of white police officers in beating of Rodney King
Tensions between urban and suburban areas highlighted racial and class animosity
Forced busing of students in 1974-1975 resulted in violence in South Boston
Contemporary Urban Trends
Both violent crime and property crime have plunged since early 1990s
Crime reached lowest level in 40 years in 2010
Drop in crime even more pronounced in large urban areas
Affluent young professionals have returned to city centers
Debate on Crime Reduction Causes
Active debate over what caused drop in crime
One theory credits falling levels of lead in environment due to legislation in early 1970s
Lead poisoning linked to criminal activity
Revitalization of American Cities
Dramatic drop in crime has led to revitalization of American cities over past 20 years
Foreign Policy Shift after 9/11
9/11 Attacks
Al Qaeda (Osama bin Laden) attacks World Trade Center and Pentagon
Fourth plane crashes in Pennsylvania
Almost 3,000 civilian casualties
Response to 9/11
Support from NATO allies for attack on Taliban government in Afghanistan
Removal of Taliban and restoration of democracy in Afghanistan
Invasion of Iraq
Allegations of Saddam Hussein's involvement in 9/11
Human rights violations and rumors of weapons of mass destruction
Quick seizure of Baghdad and power vacuum
Establishment of provisional government
Prolonged American occupation due to tensions between political and religious factions
Evangelical Christians in Politics
Right-wing Evangelical Christians were instrumental in energizing conservatives during the 1970s and 1980s
Evangelicalism became increasingly prominent in political life from the 1970s through the 1990s
Fundamentalist sects emphasized a “born-again” religious experience and strict standards of moral behavior from the Bible
Fundamentalists denounced moral relativism of liberals and believed in a literal interpretation of the Bible
Evangelical groups became increasingly political
Key Figures in the New Right
Conservative Evangelicals and fundamentalists such as Billy Graham, Jerry Falwell, and Pat Robertson helped to mobilize like-minded citizens to support the Republican Party
The strength of the New Right was evident in the key role it played in electing Ronald Reagan in 1980 and recapturing control of Congress under Bill Clinton in 1994
Evangelical Support for Republicans
Evangelical Christians continued to support Republicans with the election and re-election of George W. Bush
Increased access to digital technology like personal computers and cellular phones
Increased data storage in new devices
Exponential increase in the use of technology for personal and business purposes
Dot-Com Bubble
Speculation on the value of internet-based companies in the late 1990s
Created first wave of Internet millionaires
Bubble burst by 2001
Employment Changes in the US
Decreased manufacturing jobs (by a third) from 1990 to 2010
Replaced by retail jobs around the turn of the century
2008-2009 recession reduced retail employment
Many Americans found new work in the booming healthcare industry
Unions faced decline throughout the second half of the 20th century, particularly in its final three decades
Factors contributing to decline:
The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 restricted the ability to strike and preferential hiring of union members
Union busting, exemplified by President Reagan's firing of 3,000 striking air traffic controllers in 1981
Generational divide, with younger generations not experiencing the struggles and benefits of unions
Effects of Decline
Income inequality has grown, with consolidation of wealth in the upper echelon of American earners
Stagnation of wages, due to decrease in collective bargaining power
Union membership decreased from 34% in 1979 to 10% in 2010
Background: signed by President Roosevelt in 1933, response to bank instability leading up to Great Depression
Provisions: banks forced to choose between commercial or investment operations, prohibited from participating in both
Glass-Steagall repealed: Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 did away with provisions
Consequences: Critics argue that repeal of Glass-Steagall contributed to the 2008 recession, caused by banks offering speculative home loans
Key Players: Joseph Stiglitz, among economists, is critical of the repeal of Glass-Steagall.
Women's Role in Professional Settings
Increased role in 21st century
Glass ceiling remains a concern
Average age for first marriage increased, women prioritizing careers
2008 recession affected jobs held by men more
Women as primary breadwinner for families
Increase in women elected to political office
Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign in 2016
Geraldine Ferraro in 1984
Sarah Palin in 2008
Historic levels of women elected to Congress
Changes in Family Structures
Decrease in two-parent households (87% in 1960 to 69% today)
Increase in one-parent households (9% in 1960 to 26% today)
Elections of Barack Obama and Donald Trump
unlikely to be tested on these elections
Financial Crash of 2008
Bush and Obama administrations responded by providing financial assistance to major banks (banker bailout)
Affordable Care Act (Obamacare)
most important piece of legislation under Obama's tenure
aimed to regulate the medical industry and provide subsidies to uninsured Americans
2016 Election
marked by ideological divisions within the Republican Party and a rivalry between Trump and Clinton
Trump won the Electoral College, Clinton won the national popular vote
emergence of a new populism of skepticism for established institutions and optimism for political outsiders
Trump Presidency
marked by increased division between Democrats and Republicans
claims of "fake media" and partisan politics
2020 Election
Joe Biden vs. incumbent Trump
greatest population turnout in U.S. history
driven by political polarization and economic collapse (COVID-19 pandemic)
Impact on U.S. History
long-term social and political implications of the Trump administration and pandemic remain unclear.
Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World in 1492
He was not the first European to reach North America, the Norse had arrived in modern Canada around 1000
But his arrival marked the beginning of the Contact Period, during which Europe sustained contact with the Americas.
The period ends in 1607 because that is the year of the first English settlement.
Bering Land Bridge (Connected Eurasia and North America)
First people to inhabit North and South America came across Bering Land Bridge.
Ancestors of the Native Americans could walk across the Bering land bridge from Siberia (in modern Russia) to Alaska.
During this period, the planet was significantly colder.
Much of the world's water was locked up in vast polar ice sheets, causing sea levels to drop.
As the planet warmed, sea levels rose, and this bridge was submerged forming the Bering Strait.
Native Americans in Pre-Columbian North America
The Pre-Columbian era refers to the period before Christopher Columbus' arrival in the "New World".
North America was populated by Native Americans, not to be confused with native-born Americans.
Culture clash between European settlers and Native Americans
European settlers brought different culture, religion, and technology.
Native Americans had their own complex societies, cultures, and religions.
Conflicts and misunderstandings occurred between the two groups.
Conflicts throughout American history
Native Americans resisted European colonization and expansion.
Many wars and battles between Native Americans and European settlers.
Enslaved Africans by European settlers first arrived in 1501.
Policies of forced relocation and assimilation were implemented by the US government.
Native American populations were greatly reduced and their cultures were suppressed.
The marker of 1491 serves as a division between the Native American world and the world that came after European exploration, colonization, and invasion.
North America was home to hundreds of tribes, cities and societies.
Indigenous societies in North America before Europeans were definitely very complex.
The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development.
Along Northwest coast and in California, tribes developed communities along ocean to hunt whales and salmon, totem poles, and canoes.
In the northeast, the Mississippi river valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard, some indigenous societies developed.
Natives in the Great Plains and surrounding grasslands retained the nomadic lifestyles.
In Southwest, people had fixed lifestyles.
The Great Plains was more suitable for hunting and gathering food sources.
New ships, such as caravel allowed for longer exploratory voyages.
In August of 1492, Colombus used three caravels, supplied and funded by the Spanish crown, to set sail toward India.
After voyage, when reached land and found a group of people called the Taino and renamed their island San Salvador and claimed it for Spain.
Columbus voyage pleased the Spanish Monarchs.
Other European explorers also set sail to the New World in search of gold, glory and spread the word of their God.
Period of rapid exchange of plants, animals, foods, communicable diseases, and diseases.
Europe had the resources and technology to establish colonies far from home.
It’s between the Old world and the New world.
Old world refers to Africa, Asia, and Europe.
Old World to New World: horses, pigs, rice, wheat, grapes
New World to Old World: corn, potatoes, chocolate, tomatoes, avocado, sweet potatoes.
The introduction of new crops to Europe helped to increase food production and stimulate growth.
A colony is a territory settled and controlled by a foreign power.
Columbus arrival initiated a long period of European expansion and colonialism in the Americas.
During the next century, Spain was the colonial power in the Americas.
Spanish founded a number of coastal towns in Central and South America and in the West Indies
Conquistadors collected and exported as much of the area's wealth as they could.
Native Americans | Society | Europeans |
---|---|---|
Regarded the land as the source of life, not as a commodity to be sold. | View of Land | Believed that the land should be tamed and in private ownership of land. |
Thought of the natural world as filled with spirits. Some believed in one supreme being. | Religious Beliefs | The Roman Catholic Church was the dominant religious institution in western Europe. The pope had great political and spiritual authority. |
Bonds of kinships ensured the continuation of tribal customs. The basic unit of organization among all Native American groups was the family, which included aunts, uncles, cousins, and other relatives. | Social Organization | Europeans respected kinship, but the extended family was not as important to them. Life centered around the nuclear family (father and mother and their children). |
Assignments were based on gender, age, and status. Depending on the region, some women could participate in the decision-making process. | Division of Labor | Men generally did most of the field labor and herded livestock. Women did help in the fields, but they were mostly in charge of child care and household labor. |
Extensive use of enslaved Africans began when colonists from the Caribbean settled the Carolinas
Until then, indentured servants and, in some situations, enslaved Native Americans had mostly satisfied labor requirements
As tobacco-growing and, in South Carolina, rice-growing operations expanded, more laborers were needed than indenture could provide
Events such as Bacon’s Rebellion showed landowners it was not in their best interest to have an abundance of landless, young, white males in their colonies either
They knew the land, so they could easily escape and subsequently were difficult to find
In some Native American tribes, cultivation was considered women’s work, so gender was another obstacle to enslaving the natives
Europeans brought diseases that often decimated the Native Americans, wiping out 85 to 95 percent of the native population
Southern landowners turned increasingly to enslaved Africans for labor
Unlike Native Americans, enslaved Africans did not know the land, so they were less likely to escape
Removed from their homelands and communities, and often unable to communicate with one another because they were from different regions of Africa, enslaved Black people initially proved easier to control than Native Americans
Dark skin of West Africans made it easier to identify enslaved people on sight
English colonists associated dark skin with inferiority and rationalized Africans’ enslavement
Majority of the slave trade, right up to the Revolution, was directed toward the Caribbean and South America
More than 500,000 enslaved people were brought to the English colonies (of the over 10 million brought to the New World)
By 1790, nearly 750,000 Black people were enslaved in England’s North American colonies
Shipping route that brought enslaved people to the Americas
Was the middle leg of the triangular trade route among the colonies, Europe, and Africa
Conditions for the Africans aboard were brutally inhumane
Some committed suicide, many died of sickness or during insurrections
It was not unusual for one-fifth of the Africans to die on board
Most reached the New World, where conditions were only slightly better
Mounting criticism (primarily in the North) of the horrors of the Middle Passage led Congress to end American participation in the Atlantic slave trade on January 1, 1808
Slavery itself would not end in the United States until 1865
Flourished in the South due to nature of land and short growing season
Chesapeake and Carolinas farmed labor-intensive crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo
Plantation owners bought enslaved people for this arduous work
Treatment at the hands of the owners was often vicious and at times sadistic
Did not take hold in the North the same way it did in the South.
Used on farms in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
Used in shipping operations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island.
Used as domestic servants in urban households, particularly in New York City
Northern states would take steps to phase out slavery following the Revolution.
Still enslaved people in New Jersey at the outbreak of the Civil War
Only the very wealthy owned enslaved people.
The vast majority of people remained at a subsistence level.
Flourished in the South due to nature of land and short growing season.
Chesapeake and Carolinas farmed labor-intensive crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo.
Plantation owners bought enslaved people for this arduous work.
Treatment at the hands of the owners was often vicious and at times sadistic.
Did not take hold in the North the same way it did in the South.
Used on farms in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania
Used in shipping operations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island
Used as domestic servants in urban households, particularly in New York City
Northern states would take steps to phase out slavery following the Revolution.
Still enslaved people in New Jersey at the outbreak of the Civil War
Only the very wealthy owned enslaved people
The vast majority of people remained at a subsistence level.
During the next century, Spain was the colonial power in the Americas.
Spanish founded a number of coastal towns in Central and South America and in the West Indies
Conquistadors collected and exported as much of the area's wealth as they could
Under Spain's encomienda system, the crown granted colonists authority over a specified number of natives
Colonist was obliged to protect those natives and convert them to Catholicism
In exchange, the colonist was entitled to those natives' labor for such enterprises as sugar harvesting and silver mining.
This system sounds like a form of slavery because it was a form of slavery.
Once Spain had colonized much of modern-day South America and the southern tier of North America, other European nations were inspired to try their hands at New World exploration
They were motivated by a variety of factors such as desire for wealth and resources, clerical fervor to make new Christian converts, and the race to play a dominant role in geopolitics.
The vast expanses of largely undeveloped North America and the fertile soils in many regions of this new land, opened up virtually endless potential for agricultural profits and mineral extraction
Improvements in navigation, such as the invention of the sextant in the early 1700s, made sailing across the Atlantic Ocean safer and more efficient.
Intercontinental trade became more organized with the creation of joint-stock companies, corporate businesses with shareholders whose mission was to settle and develop lands in North America
The most famous ones were the British East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and later, the Virginia Company, which settled Jamestown.
Increased trade and development in the New World also led to increased conflict and prejudice
Europeans debated how Native Americans should be treated
Spanish and Portuguese thinkers proposed wildly different approaches to the treatment of Native populations, ranging from peace and tolerance to dominance and enslavement
The belief in European superiority was nearly universal
Some Native Americans resisted European influence, while others accepted it
Intermarriage was common between Spanish and French settlers and the natives in their colonized territories (though rare among English and Dutch settlers)
Many Native Americans converted to Christianity
Spain was particularly successful in converting much of Mesoamerica to Catholicism through the Spanish mission system
Explorers, such as Juan de Oñate, swept through the American Southwest, determined to create Christian converts by any means necessary—including violence
As colonization spread, the use of enslaved Africans purchased from African traders from their home continent became more common
Much of the Caribbean and Brazil became permanent settlements for plantations and their enslaved people
Africans adapted to their new environment by blending the language and religion of their masters with the preserved traditions of their ancestors
Religions such as voodoo are a blend of Christianity and tribal animism
Enslaved people sang African songs in the fields as they worked and created art reminiscent of their homeland
Some, such as the Maroon people, even managed to escape slavery and form cultural enclaves
Slave uprisings were not uncommon, most notably the Haitian Revolution
Unlike other European colonizers, the English sent large numbers of men and women to the agriculturally fertile areas of the East
Despite our vision of the perfect Thanksgiving table, relationships with local Native Americans were strained, at best.
English intermarriage with Native Americans and Africans was rare
So no new ethnic groups emerged, and social classes remained rigid and hierarchical.
England’s first attempt to settle North America came a year prior to its victory over Spain, in 1587, when Sir Walter Raleigh sponsored a settlement on Roanoke Island (now part of North Carolina).
The colony had disappeared by 1590, which is why it came to be known as the Lost Colony.
The English did not try again until 1607, when they settled Jamestown.
Jamestown was funded by a joint-stock company, a group of investors who bought the right to establish New World plantations from the king
The company was called the Virginia Company—named for Elizabeth I, known as the Virgin Queen—from which the area around Jamestown took its name.
The settlers, many of them English gentlemen, were ill-suited to the many adjustments life in the New World required of them, and they were much more interested in searching for gold than in planting crops.
Within three months, more than half the original settlers were dead of starvation or disease
Jamestown survived only because ships kept arriving from England with new colonists.
Captain John Smith decreed that “he who will not work shall not eat,” and things improved for a time, but after Smith was injured in a gunpowder explosion and sailed back
One of the survivors, John Rolfe, was notable in two ways. First, he married Powhatan’s daughter Pocahontas, briefly easing the tension between the natives and the English settlers.
Second, he pioneered the practice of growing tobacco, which had long been cultivated by Native Americans, as a cash crop to be exported back to England.
The English public was soon hooked, so to speak, and the success of tobacco considerably brightened the prospects for English settlement in Virginia.
Because the crop requires vast acreage and depletes the soil (and so requires farmers to constantly seek new fields), the prominent role of tobacco in Virginia’s economy resulted in rapid expansion.
The introduction of tobacco would also lead to the development of plantation slavery.
As new settlements sprang up around Jamestown, the entire area came to be known as the Chesapeake (named after the bay).
That area today comprises Virginia and Maryland.
English colonies in North America, such as Jamestown, were largely motivated by financial reasons and the desire for wealth and resources
Indentured servitude, in which individuals agreed to work for a period of time in exchange for passage to the colonies, was a common way for people to migrate to the Chesapeake
Indentured servitude was difficult and many did not survive their term, but it provided a path to land ownership and voting rights for working-class men in Europe
Over 75% of the 130,000 Englishmen who migrated to the Chesapeake during the 17th century were indentured servants
The success of tobacco as a cash crop in the Chesapeake led to rapid expansion and the development of plantation slavery.
In 1618, the Virginia Company introduced the headright system as a means of attracting new settlers to the region and addressing the labor shortage created by the emergence of tobacco farming.
A "headright" was a tract of land, usually about 50 acres, that was granted to colonists and potential settlers.
In 1619, Virginia established the House of Burgesses, in which any property-holding, white male could vote.
Decisions made by the House of Burgesses, however, had to be approved by the Virginia Company.
1619 also marks the introduction of slavery to the English colonies.
French colonized Quebec City in 1608
French Jesuit priests attempted to convert native peoples to Roman Catholicism but were more likely to spread diseases
French colonists were fewer in number compared to Spanish and English and tended to be single men
French settlers intermarried with native women and tended to stay on the move, especially if they were coureurs du bois (“runners in the woods”) who helped trade for furs
French played a significant role in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) but overall had a much lighter impact on native peoples compared to Spanish and English
French chances of shaping the region known as British North America were slim due to the Edict of Nantes in 1598
Fewer French settlers in North America compared to Spanish and English
French settlers intermarried with native women
French settlers tended to stay on the move, especially if they were coureurs du bois
French played a significant role in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) but overall had a much lighter impact on native peoples compared to Spanish and English
French chances of shaping the region known as British North America were slim due to the Edict of Nantes in 1598
English Calvinists led a Protestant movement called Puritanism in the 16th century
Puritans sought to purify the Anglican Church of Roman Catholic practices
English monarchs of the early 17th century persecuted the Puritans
Puritans began to look for a new place to practice their faith
One group of Puritans, called Separatists, decided to leave England and start fresh in the New World
In 1620, Separatists set sail for Virginia on the Mayflower, but went off course and landed in modern-day Massachusetts
The group decided to settle where they had landed and named the settlement Plymouth.
Led by William Bradford
Signed the Mayflower Compact
Created a legal authority and assembly
Government's power derived from consent of governed, not God
Received assistance from local Native Americans
Important for creating legal system for colony
Asserted government's power from consent of governed
Life-saving assistance
Pilgrims landed at site of Patuxet village wiped out by disease
Tisquantum/Squanto, an inhabitant of the village, was captured and brought to Europe as enslaved person
Returned to homeland, found it depopulated
Became Pilgrims' interpreter and taught them how to plant in new home.
1629-1642
Established by Congregationalists (Puritans who wanted to reform Anglican church from within)
Led by Governor John Winthrop
Developed along Puritan ideals
Winthrop delivered famous sermon, "A Model of Christian Charity" urging colonists to be a "city upon a hill"
Believed in covenant with God
Concept of covenants central to entire philosophy (political and religious)
Government as covenant among people
Work served communal ideal
Puritan church always to be served
Both Separatists and Congregationalists did not tolerate religious freedom in their colonies
Both had experienced and fled religious persecution
Settlers of Massachusetts Bay Colony were strict Calvinists
Calvinist principles dictated their daily lives
Protestant work ethic and relationship to market economy
Roots of Civil War may be traced back to founding of Chesapeake and New England
Two major incidents during first half of 17th century
Roger Williams, a minister in Salem Bay settlement, taught that church and state should be separate
Banished and moved to Rhode Island, founded colony with charter allowing for free exercise of religion
Anne Hutchinson, a prominent proponent of antinomianism, banished for challenging Puritan beliefs and authority of Puritan clergy
Anne Hutchinson was a woman in a resolutely patriarchal society which turned many against her.
Plantation economy dependent on slave labor developed in Chesapeake and southern colonies
New England became commercial center.
Near halt between 1649 and 1660 during Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector of England
Puritans had little motive to move to New World during Interregnum (between kings)
With the restoration of the Stuarts, many English Puritans again immigrated to the New World, bringing with them republican ideals of revolution
Entire families tended to immigrate to New England, but Chesapeake immigrants were often single males
Climate in New England was more hospitable, leading to longer life expectancy and larger families
Stronger sense of community and absence of tobacco as cash crop led New Englanders to settle in larger towns
Chesapeake residents lived in smaller, more spread-out farming communities
New Englanders were more religious, settling near meetinghouses
Slavery was rare in New England, but farms in middle and southern colonies were much larger, requiring large numbers of enslaved Africans
South Carolina had a larger proportion of enslaved Africans than European settlers
Period preceding the French and Indian War is often described as salutary neglect or benign neglect.
England regulated trade and government in its colonies but interfered in colonial affairs as little as possible.
England set up absentee customs officials and colonies were left to self-govern.
England occasionally turned a blind eye to the colonies' violations of trade restrictions.
Developed a large degree of autonomy.
Helped fuel revolutionary sentiments when monarchy later attempted to gain greater control of the New World.
Throughout the colonial period, Europeans used a theory called mercantilism.
Mercantilists believed that economic power was rooted in a favorable balance of trade and control of specie
Colonies were important mostly for economic reasons, which is why the British considered their colonies in the West Indies more important than their colonies on the North American continent
Colonies on the North American continent were seen primarily as markets for British and West Indian goods, but also as sources of raw materials
British government encouraged manufacturing in England and placed protective tariffs on imports that might compete with English goods
Navigation Acts passed between 1651 and 1673, required colonists to buy goods only from England, sell certain of their products only to England, and import non-English goods via English ports and pay a duty on those imports
Navigation Acts also prohibited the colonies from manufacturing a number of goods that England already produced
Wool Act of 1699, forbade both the export of wool from the American colonies and the importation of wool from other British colonies
Molasses Act of 1733, imposed an exorbitant tax upon the importation of sugar from the French West Indies
New Englanders frequently refused to pay the taxes imposed by these acts
Forbade both the export of wool from the American colonies and the importation of wool from other British colonies
Some colonists protested this law by dealing only in flax and hemp
Imposed an exorbitant tax upon the importation of sugar from the French West Indies
New Englanders frequently refused to pay the tax, an early example of rebellion against the Crown.
Despite trade regulations, colonists maintained a high degree of autonomy
Each colony had a governor appointed by the king or proprietor
Governor had powers similar to the king, but also dependent on colonial legislatures for money
Governor's power relied on cooperation of colonists, most ruled accordingly
Except for Pennsylvania, all colonies had bicameral legislatures modeled after British Parliament
Lower house functioned similar to House of Representatives, members directly elected by white, male property holders and had "power of the purse"
Upper house made of appointees serving as advisors to governor, had some legislative and judicial powers
Most upper house members chosen from local population and concerned with protecting interests of colonial landowners
British never established powerful central government in colonies
Autonomy allowed eased transition to independence in following century
Small efforts made by colonists towards centralized government
New England Confederation most prominent attempt
No real power, but offered advice to northeastern colonies when disputes arose
Provided opportunity for colonists from different settlements to meet and discuss mutual problems
Colonies "grew up," developing fledgling economies.
Beginnings of an American culture, as opposed to a transplanted English culture, took root.
Near halt between 1649 and 1660 during Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector of England
Puritans had little motive to move to New World during Interregnum (between kings)
With the restoration of the Stuarts, many English Puritans again immigrated to the New World, bringing with them republican ideals of revolution
Entire families tended to immigrate to New England, but Chesapeake immigrants were often single males
Climate in New England was more hospitable, leading to longer life expectancy and larger families
Stronger sense of community and absence of tobacco as cash crop led New Englanders to settle in larger towns
Chesapeake residents lived in smaller, more spread-out farming communities
New Englanders were more religious, settling near meetinghouses
Slavery was rare in New England, but farms in middle and southern colonies were much larger, requiring large numbers of enslaved Africans
South Carolina had a larger proportion of enslaved Africans than European settlers
Several colonies were owned by one person, usually received land as gift from king
Connecticut and Maryland were two such colonies
Received charter in 1635
Produced Fundamental Orders, considered first written constitution in British North America
Granted to Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore
Calvert intended to create haven colony for Catholics and make a profit growing tobacco
Offered religious tolerance for all Christians but tension between faiths soon arose
Act of Tolerance passed in 1649 to protect religious freedom but situation devolved into religious civil war
Royal gift to James, king's brother
Dutch Republic was largest commercial power of the century and economic rival of the British
Dutch had established initial settlement in 1614 near present-day Albany, which they called New Netherland
In 1664, Charles II of England waged war against the Dutch Republic and captured New Netherland
James became Duke of York, and when he became king in 1685, he proclaimed New York a royal colony
Dutch were allowed to remain in colony on generous terms and made up large segment of population for many years
Given to friends of Charles II, who sold it off to investors, many of whom were Quakers
William Penn, a Quaker, received colony as a gift from King Charles II
Charles had a friendship with William Penn and wanted to export Quakers to someplace far from England
Penn established liberal policies towards religious freedom and civil liberties
Pennsylvania had natural bounty and attracted settlers through advertising, making it one of the fastest growing colonies
Penn attempted to treat Native Americans more fairly but had mixed results
Penn made a treaty with the Delawares to take only as much land as could be walked by a man in three days. His son, however, renegotiated the treaty, hiring three marathon runners for the same task, thereby claiming considerably more land.
Proprietary colony (English-owned)
Split into North and South in 1729
Settled by Virginians
Settled by descendants of Englishmen who had colonized Barbados
Barbados’ primary export: sugar
Plantations worked by enslaved people
Existed in Virginia since 1619
Arrival of settlers from Barbados marked the beginning of the slave era in the colonies
First Englishmen in the New World to see widespread slavery at work
Formation of South Carolina and ongoing armed conflicts with Spanish Florida prompted British to support formation of Georgia by James Oglethorpe in 1732
Georgia initially banned slavery
Ban was soon overturned due to economic advantage and growth afforded to neighboring South Carolina due to slavery
Most of the proprietary colonies were converted to royal colonies (owned by the king)
Greater control over government
By the time of the Revolution, only Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were not royal colonies.
Population in 1700 was 250,000 and by 1750 it was 1,250,000
Substantial non-English European populations (Scotch-Irish, Scots, Germans) started arriving in large numbers during the 18th century
English settlers continued to come to the New World as well
Black population in 1750 was more than 200,000
In a few colonies, Black population would outnumber whites by the time of the Revolution
Over 90% of colonists lived in rural areas
Labor divided along gender lines, men doing outdoor work and women doing indoor work
Opportunities for social interaction outside the family were limited
Patriarchy society, children and women were subordinate to men
Children's education was secondary to their work schedules
Women were not allowed to vote, draft a will, or testify in court
Predominantly lived in the countryside and in the South
Lives varied from region to region, with conditions being most difficult in the South
Enslaved people who worked on large plantations and had specialized skills fared better than field hands
Condition of servitude was demeaning
Enslaved people often developed extended kinship ties and strong communal bonds to cope with the misery of servitude
In the North, Black people often had trouble maintaining a sense of community and history.
Often worse than in the countryside
Immigrants settled in cities for work, but work paid too little and poverty was widespread
Sanitary conditions were primitive, epidemics such as smallpox were common
Cities offered residents wider contact with other people and the outside world
Centers for progress and education
Citizens with anything above a rudimentary level of education were rare
Nearly all colleges established during this period served primarily to train ministers
Early colleges in the North include Harvard and Yale (established in 1636 and 1701, respectively)
College of William and Mary was chartered in the South in 1693
New England society centered on trade, Boston was the colonies' major port city
Population farmed for subsistence, subscribed to rigid Puritanism
Middle colonies (New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey) had more fertile land and focused primarily on farming
Lower South (the Carolinas) concentrated on cash crops such as tobacco and rice
Slavery played a major role on plantations, but majority of Southerners were subsistence farmers
Blacks constituted up to half the population of some southern colonies
Chesapeake colonies (Maryland and Virginia) combined features of the middle colonies and the lower South
Slavery and tobacco played a larger role in the Chesapeake than in the middle colonies
Chesapeake residents also farmed grain and diversified their economies
Development of major cities in the Chesapeake region distinguished it from the lower South, which was almost entirely rural.
Took place on Virginia's western frontier in 1676
Frontier farmers forced west into back country due to all coastal land being claimed
Encroaching on land inhabited by Native Americans led to raids on frontier farmers
Frontier settlers sought to band together and drive out native tribes
Stymied by government in Jamestown, which did not want to risk full-scale war
Class resentment grew as frontiersmen suspected eastern elites viewed them as expendable "human shields"
Nathaniel Bacon, a recent immigrant, rallied the farmers and demanded Governor William Berkeley grant him authority to raise a militia and attack nearby tribes
When Berkeley refused, Bacon and his men attacked the Susquehannock and Pamunkeys, who were actually allies of the English
Rebels then turned their attention to Jamestown, sacking and burning the city
Rebellion dissolved when Bacon died of dysentery, conflict between colonists and Native Americans averted with new treaty
Often cited as early example of populist uprising in America
First and one of the most successful slave rebellions
Took place in September 1739 near Stono River, outside of Charleston, South Carolina
Approximately 20 enslaved people stole guns and ammunition, killed storekeepers and planters, and liberated a number of enslaved people
Rebels fled to Florida, where they hoped the Spanish colonists would grant them their freedom
Colonial militia caught up with them and attacked, killing some and capturing most of the others
Those who were captured and returned were later executed
As a result of the Stono Uprising, many colonies passed more restrictive laws to govern the behavior of enslaved people
Fear of slave rebellions increased, and New York experienced a "witch hunt" period
Took place in 1692, not the first witch trials in New England
During the first 70 years of English settlement in the region, 103 people (almost all women) had been tried on charges of witchcraft
Never before had so many been accused at once, more than 130 "witches" were jailed or executed in Salem
Historians have different explanations for why the mass hysteria started and ended so quickly
Region had recently endured the autocratic control of the Dominion of New England
In 1691, Massachusetts became a royal colony under new monarchs, suffrage was extended to all Protestants
War against French and Native Americans on the Canadian border increased regional anxieties
Feared that their religion was being undermined by commercialism in cities like Boston
Many second and third generation Puritans lacked the fervor of the original settlers
Led to the Halfway Covenant in 1662 which changed rules for Puritan baptisms
Prior to the Halfway Covenant, a Puritan had to experience God's grace for their children to be baptized
With many losing interest in the church, the Puritan clergy decided to baptize all children whose parents were baptized
However, those who had not experienced God's grace were not allowed to vote
All of these factors (religious, economic, and gender) combined to create mass hysteria in Salem in 1692
Accusers were mostly teenage girls who accused prominent citizens of consorting with the Devil
Town leaders turned against the accusers and the hysteria ended
Generations that followed original settlers were generally less religious
By 1700, women constituted the majority of active church members
First Great Awakening in the 1730s and 1740s
Wave of religious revivalism in the colonies and Europe
Led by Congregationalist minister Jonathan Edwards and Methodist preacher George Whitefield
Edwards preached severe, predeterministic doctrines of Calvinism
Whitefield preached a Christianity based on emotionalism and spirituality
Often described as a response to the Enlightenment, a European intellectual movement emphasizing rationalism over emotionalism or spirituality.
Self-made, self-educated man who typified Enlightenment ideals in America
Printer's apprentice who became a wealthy printer and respected intellectual
Created Poor Richard's Almanack which remains influential to this day
Did pioneering work in electricity, inventing bifocals, the lightning rod, and the Franklin stove
Founded the colonies' first fire department, post office, and public library
Espoused Enlightenment ideals about education, government, and religion
Colonists' favorite son until George Washington came along
Served as an ambassador in Europe and negotiated a crucial alliance with the French and peace treaty that ended the Revolutionary War.
Also called the French and Indian War, it was actually one of several “wars for empire” fought between the British and the French.
The war was the inevitable result of colonial expansion, where English settlers moved into the Ohio Valley, and the French tried to stop them by building fortified outposts.
George Washington led a colonial contingent, which attacked a French outpost and lost.
Washington surrendered and was allowed to return to Virginia, where he was welcomed as a hero.
Most Native Americans in the region allied themselves with the French, who had traditionally had the best relations with Native Americans of any of the European powers.
The war dragged on for years before the English finally gained the upper hand.
When the war was over, England was the undisputed colonial power of the continent.
The treaty gave England control of Canada and almost everything east of the Mississippi Valley.
The French kept only a few small islands, underscoring the impact of mercantilism since the French prioritized two small but highly profitable islands over the large landmass of Canada.
William Pitt, the English Prime Minister during the war, was supportive of the colonists and encouraged them to join the war effort.
When the leadership in Britain changed after the war, that led to resentment by the colonists against the British rule.
Native Americans had previously been able to use French and English disputes to their own advantage, but the English victory spelled trouble for them.
The Native Americans particularly disliked the English, because English expansionism was more disruptive to their way of life.
In the aftermath of the war, the English raised the price of goods sold to the Native Americans and ceased paying rent on their western forts.
In response, Ottawa war chief Pontiac rallied a group of tribes in the Ohio Valley and attacked colonial outposts, which is known as Pontiac's Rebellion.
In response to Pontiac's Rebellion, the Paxton Boys, a group of Scots-Irish frontiersmen in Pennsylvania murdered several in the Susquehannock tribe.
Developed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754
Proposed an intercolonial government and a system for collecting taxes for the colonies' defense
Representatives from seven colonies met in Albany, New York to consider the plan
Franklin also tried to negotiate a treaty with the Iroquois
Plan was rejected by the colonies as they did not want to relinquish control of their right to tax themselves or unite under a single colonial legislature
Franklin's frustration was well publicized in a political cartoon showing a snake broken into pieces with the words "Join or Die."
Financing the war resulted in a huge debt for the British government
King George III and Prime Minister George Grenville felt that colonists should help pay the debt
Colonists believed they had fulfilled their obligation by providing soldiers
Parliament imposed new regulations and taxes on colonists
First was the Sugar Act of 1764, established new duties and provisions aimed at deterring molasses smugglers
Prior to the decade leading up to the Revolutionary War, there was little colonial resistance to previous trade and manufacturing regulations
The Sugar Act actually lowered the duty on molasses coming into the colonies from the West Indies
Angry about the new regulations being more strictly enforced and the duties being collected
Difficult for colonial shippers to avoid committing even minor violations of the Sugar Act
Violators were to be arrested and tried in vice-admiralty courts without jury deliberation
Suggested to some colonists that Parliament was overstepping its authority and violating their rights as Englishmen.
Sugar Act, Currency Act, and Proclamation of 1763 caused a great deal of discontent in the colonies
Colonists bristled at British attempts to exert greater control
End of Britain's long-standing policy of salutary neglect
Economic depression further exacerbated the situation
Colonial protest was uncoordinated and ineffective
Passed in 1765 by Parliament
Aimed at raising revenue specifically
Awakened the colonists to the likelihood of more taxes to follow
Demonstrated that colonies' tradition of self-taxation was being unjustly taken by Parliament
Broad-based tax, covering all legal documents and licenses
Affected almost everyone, particularly lawyers
Tax on goods produced within the colonies
Built on previous grievances and more forceful than any protest preceding it
Pamphlet by James Otis, called The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, laid out the colonists’ argument against the taxes
Otis put forward the “No taxation without representation” argument
Argued for either representation in Parliament or a greater degree of self-government for the colonies
British scoffed at the notion, arguing that colonists were already represented in Parliament through the theory of virtual representation
Colonists knew that their representation would be too small to protect their interests
Wanted the right to determine their own taxes.
Opponents united in various colonies
Virginia, Patrick Henry drafted the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves, asserting colonists’ right to self-government
Boston, mobs burned customs officers in effigy, tore down a customs house, and nearly destroyed the governor’s mansion
Protest groups formed throughout the colonies, called themselves Sons of Liberty
Opposition was so effective that no duty collectors were willing to perform their job
In 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act
George III replaced Prime Minister Grenville with Lord Rockingham, who had opposed the Stamp Act
Rockingham oversaw the repeal but also linked it to the passage of the Declaratory Act, which asserted British government's right to tax and legislate in all cases anywhere in the colonies
Although the colonists had won the battle over the stamp tax, they had not yet gained any ground in the war of principles over Parliament's powers in the colonies
Drafted by Charles Townshend, minister of the exchequer
Taxed goods imported directly from Britain, the first such tax in the colonies
Some of the tax collected was set aside for the payment of tax collectors, meaning that colonial assemblies could no longer withhold government officials’ wages in order to get their way
Created even more vice-admiralty courts and several new government offices to enforce the Crown’s will in the colonies
Suspended the New York legislature because it had refused to comply with a law requiring the colonists to supply British troops
Instituted writs of assistance, licenses that gave the British the power to search any place they suspected of hiding smuggled goods
Stronger than previous protests
Massachusetts Assembly sent letter (Massachusetts Circular Letter) to other assemblies asking that they protest the new measures in unison
British fanned the flames of protest by ordering the assemblies not to discuss the Massachusetts letter
Governors dissolved legislatures that discussed the letter, further infuriating colonists
Colonists held numerous rallies and organized boycotts
Sought support of “commoners” for the first time
Boycotts were most successful because they affected British merchants, who then joined the protest
Colonial women were essential in the effort to replace British imports with “American” (New England) products
After two years, Parliament repealed the Townshend
Stationed large numbers of troops in America
Made the colonists responsible for the cost of feeding and housing them
Even after the Townshend duties were repealed, the soldiers remained, particularly in Boston
Officially sent to keep the peace but heightened tensions
Detachment was huge - 4,000 men in a city of only 16,000
Soldiers sought off-hour employment and competed with colonists for jobs
On March 5, 1770, a mob pelted a group of soldiers with rock-filled snowballs
Soldiers fired on the crowd, killing five
Propaganda campaign that followed suggested that the soldiers had shot into a crowd of innocent bystanders
John Adams defended the soldiers in court, helping to establish a tradition of giving a fair trial to all who are accused
Boston Massacre shocks both sides into de-escalating rhetoric
Uneasy status quo falls into place for next two years
Colonial newspapers discuss ways to alter relationship between mother country and colonies
Very few radicals suggest independence
Things pick up in 1772 when British implement Townshend Acts (colonial administrators paid from customs revenues)
Colonists respond cautiously, setting up Committees of Correspondence to trade ideas and inform one another of political mood
Mercy Otis Warren and other writers call for revolution
John Dickinson's "Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania" unites colonists against Townshend Acts
British grant East India Tea Company monopoly on tea trade in colonies, colonists see new taxes imposed
Boston Tea Party results in British response with Coercive/Intolerable Acts (closes Boston Harbor, tightens control over Massachusetts government, Quartering Act)
Quebec Act (grants greater liberties to Catholics, extends boundaries of Quebec Territory) further impeding westward expansion, causing further dissatisfaction among colonists.
Convened in late 1774
All colonies except Georgia sent delegates
Represented diverse perspectives
Goal: enumerate American grievances, develop strategy for addressing grievances, formulate colonial position on relationship between royal government and colonial governments
Came up with list of laws colonists wanted repealed
Agreed to impose boycott on British goods until grievances were redressed
Formed Continental Association with towns setting up committees of observation to enforce boycott
These committees became de facto governments
Formulated limited set of parameters for acceptable Parliamentary interference in colonial affairs
Committees of observation expanded powers
Replaced British-sanctioned assemblies in many colonies
Led acts of insubordination (collecting taxes, disrupting court sessions, organizing militias and stockpiling weapons)
John Adams later commented "The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people"
The British Underestimated the Pro-Revolutionary Movement
Government officials believed if they arrested ringleaders and confiscated weapons, violence could be averted
Dispatched troops to confiscate weapons in Concord, Massachusetts in April 1775
Troops had to pass through Lexington, where they confronted a small colonial militia (minutemen)
Someone fired a shot, which drew British return fire
Minutemen suffered 18 casualties (8 dead)
British proceeded to Concord where they faced a larger militia
Militia inflicted numerous casualties and forced British to retreat
Battle of Concord referred to as "the shot heard 'round the world"
Colonists used time to rally citizens to the cause of independence
Not all were convinced, Loyalists included government officials, devout Anglicans, merchants dependent on trade with England, religious and ethnic minorities who feared persecution by the rebels
Many enslaved people believed their chances for liberty were better with the British than with the colonists
Increase in slave insurrections dampened some Southerners' enthusiasm for revolution
Patriots were mostly white Protestant property holders and gentry, as well as urban artisans, especially in New England
Much of the rest of the population hoped the whole thing would blow over
Quakers of Pennsylvania were pacifists and wanted to avoid war.
Prepared for war by establishing a Continental Army, printing money, and creating government offices to supervise policy
Chose George Washington to lead the army because he was well-liked and a Southerner
John Dickinson and the Olive Branch Petition
Many delegates followed John Dickinson who was pushing for reconciliation with Britain using the Olive Branch Petition
Adopted by the Continental Congress on July 5, 1775
Last-ditch attempt to avoid armed conflict
King George III was not interested since he considered the colonists to be in open rebellion
One year before the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, the colonial leaders were trying to reconcile with the mother country.
Published in January 1776 by Thomas Paine, an English printer
Advocated for colonial independence and republicanism over monarchy
Sold more than 100,000 copies in its first three months
Accessible to colonists who couldn't always understand the Enlightenment-speak of the Founding Fathers
Helped swing support to the patriot cause among people who were unsure about attacking the mother country
Bigger success than James Otis's The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved
Literacy rates in New England were higher due to the Puritan legacy of teaching children to read the Bible
Nevertheless, Paine's pamphlet reached a wider audience, including those who couldn't read
Proportional equivalent of selling 13 million downloads today
Rebels were looking for a masterpiece of propaganda to rally colonists to their cause
Common Sense served as this masterpiece and helped swing support to the patriot cause.
Commissioned by the Congress in June 1776
Written by Thomas Jefferson
Enumerated the colonies' grievances against the Crown
Articulated the principle of individual liberty and government's responsibility to serve the people
Despite its flaws, it remains a powerful document
Signed on July 4, 1776
The Revolutionary War became a war for independence with the signing of the Declaration
The Declaration not only set out the colonies' complaints against the British government but also laid out the philosophical underpinnings of the revolution, most notably the assertion that all men are created equal and have certain inalienable rights
The Declaration has been considered as a seminal document in American history, and has been a source of inspiration for movements for civil rights and freedom across the world.
Occurred on October 17, 1781
Symbolic end to the American Revolution
Major British general, Cornwallis, was surrounded by the French navy and George Washington’s troops, and surrendered
Began a long period of negotiations between the American colonies and Great Britain, which would finally end the war in October of 1783
Continental Army had trouble recruiting good soldiers
Congress eventually recruited Black people, and up to 5,000 fought on the side of the rebels
Franco-American Alliance, negotiated by Ben Franklin in 1778, brought the French into the war on the side of the colonists
Treaty of Paris, signed at the end of 1783, granted the United States independence and generous territorial rights
Sent to the colonies for ratification in 1777 by the Continental Congress
The first national constitution of the United States
Intentionally created little to no central government due to fear of creating a tyrannical government
Gave the federal government no power to raise an army
Could not enforce state or individual taxation, or a military draft
Could not regulate trade among the states or international trade
Had no executive or judicial branch
Legislative branch gave each state one vote, regardless of the state's population
In order to pass a law, 9 of the 13 of the states had to agree
In order to amend or change the Articles, unanimous approval was needed
These limitations hurt the colonies during Shays's Rebellion.
Eventually, the limitations of the Articles of Confederation led to the drafting of the Constitution of the United States.
By 1787,
The federal government lacked sufficient authority under the Articles of Confederation.
Alexander Hamilton was concerned about no uniform commercial policy and fear for the survival of the new republic.
Hamilton convened the meeting -Only five delegates showed up
Congress consented to a "meeting in Philadelphia" for the sole purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation.
Delegates from all states except Rhode Island attended the meeting.
Meeting took place during the long, hot summer of 1787.
55 delegates
All men
All white
Many wealthy lawyers or landowners
Many owned enslaved people
Came from different ideological backgrounds
Called for modifications to Articles of Confederation
Called for equal representation from each state
Proposed by James Madison
Called for new government based on principle of checks and balances
Number of representatives for each state based on population
Executive branch led by president
Legislative branch composed of bicameral Congress
Judicial branch composed of Supreme Court
Expanded powers:
Enforce federal taxation
Regulate trade between states
Regulate international trade
Coin and borrow money
Create postal service
Authorize military draft
Declare war
Indirectly chosen by Electoral College
College composed of political leaders representing popular vote of each state
To win state's electoral votes, candidate must win majority of popular vote in that state
State's electoral count is sum of senators and representatives (determined by population)
Gives states with larger populations more power in presidential elections
Lasted 4 months
Delegates hammered out compromises
Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) blended NJ and VA plans for bicameral legislature
Constitution established:
House of Representatives elected by people
Senate elected by state legislatures
President and VP elected by Electoral College
Three branches of government: executive, legislative, judicial
Power of checks and balances
Method for counting enslaved people in southern states for "proportional" representation in Congress
Enslaved people counted as 3/5 of a person
Only three of 42 remaining delegates refused to sign
Two refused because it did not include a bill of rights.
Not guaranteed
Opponents (Anti-Federalists) portrayed federal government as all-powerful beast
Anti-Federalists came from backcountry and were particularly appalled by absence of bill of rights
Position resonated in state legislatures where fate of Constitution lay
Some held out for promise of immediate addition of Bill of Rights upon ratification
Forcefully and persuasively argued in Federalist Papers
Papers anonymously authored by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay
Published in New York newspaper and later widely circulated
Critical in swaying opinion in New York, a large and important state
Other important states of the era: Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts
Went into effect in 1789
Bill of Rights added in 1791
Unanimously chosen by Electoral College
Not sought presidency, but most popular figure in colonies
Accepted role out of sense of obligation
Exercised authority with care and restraint
Used veto only if convinced bill was unconstitutional
Comfortable delegating responsibility, created government of best minds of his time
Created a cabinet (not specifically granted in Constitution but every president since has had one)
Cabinet is made up of heads of executive departments, functions as president's chief group of advisors
Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state
Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury
Disagreed on proper relationship between federal and state government
Hamilton favored strong central government, weaker state governments
Jefferson feared monarchy/tyranny, favored weaker federal government with main powers of defense and international commerce
Hamilton proposed National Bank to help regulate and strengthen economy
Both houses of Congress approved but Washington uncertain of constitutionality
Debate established two main schools of thought on constitutional law
Strict constructionists (led by Jefferson and Madison) argued bank not necessary and thus beyond national government's powers
Hamilton (broad constructionist) argued bank implied power of government and not explicitly forbidden by Constitution
Washington agreed with Hamilton and signed bill
Busy and successful tenure
Handled national debt accrued during war
Financial plan called for federal government to assume states' debts, repay by giving debt holders land on western frontier
Plan favored northern banks and drew accusations of helping monied elite at expense of working classes
Struck political deal to get most of plan implemented, concession was southern location for nation's capital
Capital moved to Washington D.C. in 1800
Took place during Washington's presidency
Caused considerable debate between Jefferson and Hamilton
Jefferson supported revolution and republican ideals
Hamilton had aristocratic leanings, disliked revolutionaries
Issue came to forefront when France and England resumed hostilities
British were primary trading partner after war, nudged U.S. toward neutrality in French-English conflict
Jefferson agreed on neutrality as correct course to follow
Washington declared U.S. intention to remain "friendly and impartial" (Neutrality Proclamation)
Genêt's visit sparked rallies by American supporters of the revolution
Federalists (favoring strong federal government)
Republicans/Democratic-Republicans (followers of Jefferson)
Development of political parties troubled framers of the Constitution, seen as factions dangerous to survival of Republic
Federalists who supported ratification of the Constitution are often the same people as Federalists who favored strong federal government.
Republican party created in 1850s is a very different group which still survives today.
Implemented excise tax on whiskey to raise revenue
Farmers in western Pennsylvania resisted, instigating Whiskey Rebellion
Washington dispatched militia to disperse rebels, demonstrated new government's power to respond
Rebellion highlighted class tensions between inland farmers and coastal elites
Negotiated by John Jay to address British evacuation of NW and free trade violations
Prevented war with Great Britain, but considered too many concessions towards British
Congress attempted to withhold funding to enforce treaty
Washington refused to submit documents, establishing precedent of executive privilege
Considered low point of Washington's administration
Negotiated by Thomas Pinckney with Spain, addressing use of Mississippi River, duty-free access to markets, and removal of Spanish forts on American soil
Spain promised to try to prevent Native American attacks on Western settlers
Ratified by U.S. Senate in 1796, considered high point of Washington's administration
Declined to run for third term, set final precedent
Composed in part by Alexander Hamilton
Warned future presidents against "permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world"
Promoted notion of friendly relationships with all nations, but avoiding permanent alliances
Warning remained prominent part of American foreign policy through mid-20th century
During the 1790s, women’s roles in courtship, marriage, and motherhood were reevaluated in light of the new republic and its ideals
Women were largely excluded from political activity but had an important civil role and responsibility
Women were to be the teachers and producers of virtuous male citizens
Public virtue had been a strictly masculine quality in the past, private virtue emerged as a very important quality for women
Women were given the task of inspiring and teaching men to be good citizens through romance and motherhood
Women were to entertain only suitors with good morals, providing more incentive for men to be more ethical
Women held a tremendous influence on their son
Advocates for female education spoke out, arguing that educated women would be better mothers, who would produce better citizens
Even though the obligations of women had grown to include this new political meaning, traditional gender roles were largely unchanged as the education of women was meant only in service to husbands and family
The idea of Republican Motherhood emerged in the early 1800s
The role of the mother became more prominent in child-rearing
Mothers were now expected to raise educated children who would contribute positively to the United States.
The Electoral College selected John Adams, a Federalist, as Washington’s successor
Under the then-current rules, the second-place candidate became vice president, so Adams’s vice president was the Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson
Following the Washington Era, Adams’s presidency was bound to be an anticlimax
Adams, argumentative and elitist, was a difficult man to like
He was also a hands-off administrator, often allowing Jefferson’s political rival Alexander Hamilton to take charge
The animosity between Jefferson and Hamilton and the growing belligerence between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans set the ugly, divisive tone for Adams’s term
Perhaps Adams’s greatest achievement was avoiding all-out war with France
After the United States signed the Jay Treaty with Britain, France began seizing American ships on the open seas
Adams sent three diplomats to Paris, where French officials demanded a huge bribe before they would allow negotiations even to begin
The diplomats returned home, and Adams published their written report in the newspapers
Because he deleted the French officials’ names and replaced them with the letters X, Y, and Z, the incident became known as the XYZ Affair
As a result, popular sentiment did a complete turnaround; formerly pro-French, the public became vehemently anti-French to the point that a declaration of war seemed possible
Aware of how small the American military was, Adams avoided the war (a war Hamilton wanted) and negotiated a settlement with a contrite France although he was not able to avoid the Naval skirmishes called the Quasi-War
The low point of Adams’s tenure was the passage and enforcement of the Alien and Sedition Acts
The acts allowed the government to forcibly expel foreigners and to jail newspaper editors for “scandalous and malicious writing”
The acts were purely political, aimed at destroying new immigrants’—especially French immigrants’—support for the Democratic-Republicans
Worst of all, the Sedition Act, which strictly regulated antigovernment speech, was a clear violation of the First Amendment
Vice President Jefferson led the opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts
Together with Madison, he drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (which were technically anonymous)
The resolutions argued that the states had the right to judge the constitutionality of federal laws
The resolutions went on to exercise this authority they claimed, later referred to as nullification, by declaring the Alien and Sedition Acts void
Virginia and Kentucky, however, never prevented enforcement of the laws
Rather, Jefferson used the laws and the resolutions as key issues in his 1800 campaign for the presidency
Even today, states often pass resolutions similar to these to express their displeasure with the federal government.
General
By 1800, the Federalist Party was split, clearing the way to the presidency for the Democratic-Republicans
Two men ran for the party nomination: Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr
Election Results
Each received an equal number of votes in the Electoral College, which meant that the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives was required to choose a president from between the two
It took 35 ballots, but Jefferson finally won
Alexander Hamilton swallowed hard and campaigned for Jefferson, with whom he disagreed on most issues and whom he personally disliked, because he believed Burr to be “a most unfit and dangerous man.”
Burr later proved Hamilton right by killing him.
Noteworthy Reasons
The election was noteworthy for two reasons
For the second time in as many elections, a president was saddled with a vice president he did not want.
The other, more important reason the election was significant is that in America’s first transfer of power—from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans—no violence occurred, a feat practically unprecedented for the time.
Change-over
Jefferson referred to his victory and the subsequent change-over as “the bloodless revolution.”
The problem of the president being saddled with a vice president he did not want was remedied in 1804 with the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, which allowed electors to vote for a party ticket.
General
The transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans may have been a bloodless one, but it was not a friendly one
Adams was so upset about the election that he left the capital before Jefferson took office in order to avoid attending the inauguration ceremony
Midnight Appointments
Before he left town, Adams made a number of midnight appointments, filling as many government positions with Federalists as he could
Jefferson’s response was to refuse to recognize those appointments
He then set about replacing as many Federalist appointees as he could. He dismissed some, pressured others to retire, and waited out the rest
By his second term, the majority of public appointees were Democratic-Republicans
Marbury v. Madison
Jefferson’s refusal to accept Adams’s midnight appointments resulted in a number of lawsuits against the government
One, the case of Marbury v. Madison reached the Supreme Court in 1803
William Marbury, one of Adams’s last-minute appointees, had sued Secretary of State James Madison for refusing to certify his appointment to the federal bench
Chief Justice John Marshall was a Federalist, and his sympathies were with Marbury, but Marshall was not certain that the court could force Jefferson to accept Marbury’s appointment
Marshall’s decision in the case established one of the most important principles of the Supreme Court: judicial review
The court ruled that Marbury did indeed have a right to his judgeship but that the court could not enforce his right.
Judicial Review
The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court the authority to order federal appointees (such as Madison) to deliver appointments such as William Marbury’s
Marshall believed that this act gave too much power to the Judicial Branch at the expense of Congress and the Presidency, and thus it was unconstitutional
In one fell swoop, Marshall had handed Jefferson the victory he wanted while simultaneously claiming a major role for the Supreme Court
Louisiana Purchase
The major accomplishment of Jefferson’s first term was the Louisiana Purchase
When Spain gave New Orleans to the French in 1802, the government realized that a potentially troublesome situation was developing
The French, they knew, were more likely to take advantage of New Orleans’ strategic location at the mouth of the Mississippi
General
Thomas Jefferson faced with a dilemma with regards to the Constitution and the power of the federal government
as secretary of state under Washington, he had argued for a strict interpretation of the Constitution
Dilemma
Nowhere did the Constitution authorize the president to purchase land, yet clearly Jefferson could not pass up this opportunity to double the size of the United States
Jefferson thought about trying to get a constitutional amendment added allowing him to buy land from other countries
Ultimately, Jefferson resolved the issue by claiming his presidential power to negotiate treaties with foreign nations
Louisiana Purchase
His decision to purchase Louisiana without Congressional approval was not unanimously applauded
New England Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase because they feared (correctly) that more western states would be more Democratic states, and that they would lose political power.
They formed a group called the Essex Junto, planning to secede from the United States (and asked Aaron Burr to be their leader), but the plan never fully materialized
Some Republicans, led by John Randolph of Virginia, criticized Jefferson for violating Republican principles. This group became known as the Quids
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Jefferson sent explorers, among them Lewis and Clark, to investigate the western territories, including much of what was included in the Louisiana territory
This trip included Sacajawea as the Shoshoni guide who helped Lewis and Clark negotiate with other Native American tribes on the way up the Missouri River
All returned with favorable reports, causing many pioneers to turn their attentions westward in search of land, riches, and economic opportunities
Those early explorers also reported back to Jefferson on the presence of British and French forts that still dotted the territory, garrisoned with foreign troops that had been (deliberately?) slow to withdraw after the regime changes of the previous half-century
Election of 1804
In 1804, Jefferson won reelection in a landslide victory
During the 1804 elections, Aaron Burr ran for governor of New York
Again, Alexander Hamilton campaigned against Burr
When Burr lost, he accused Hamilton of sabotaging his political career and challenged him to a duel in which he killed Hamilton
Afterward, Burr fled to the Southwest, where he plotted to start his own nation in parts of the Louisiana Territory. He was later captured and tried for treason but was acquitted due to lack of evidence
French-English dispute leads to War of 1812
British and French blockading trade routes
American ships and sailors impressed by British
Tensions mount, culminating in British frigate attack on American ship in American waters
Jefferson unable to go to war, responds with boycott and increasing military appropriations
Embargo Act of 1807
Shut down of American import and export business
Disastrous economic results, especially in New England
Smuggling becomes widespread
New England states strongly opposed
Led to loss of Democratic Republican Congressional seats in 1808 elections
Non-Intercourse Act of 1809
Reopened trade with most nations
Officially banned trade with Britain and France
Jefferson chooses not to seek third term, endorses James Madison for presidency
Macon's Bill No. 2
Reopened trade with both France and England
If either country interfered with American trade, the other would be cut off
Napoleon promised to stop interference, leading to embargo on England
France continued to harass American ships
British stepped up attacks on American ships
Pro-War Sentiments
Southern and Western War Hawks saw opportunity to gain new territories
Strong desire to gain Canada from British
Led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun
Madison and the Declaration of War
Madison held out as long as he could
Finally asked Congress to declare war in 1812.
War of 1812
Native Americans aligned with British
Tecumseh unified area tribes to stop American expansion
British armed Native Americans in Western territories
American forces ill-prepared for war, fighting went badly
British captured Washington, D.C. and set White House on fire
Most battles fought to a stalemate
Treaty of Ghent signed, ending war
Battle of New Orleans, clear-cut U.S. victory
Federalists opposed war and met in Hartford Convention
War spurred American manufacturing, led to self-sufficiency
The Hartford Convention
Grievances including trade laws and presidential term limits
Federalists considered traitors, party dissolved
Madison Administration
Promoted national growth
Cautious extension of federal power
Championed protective tariffs, interstate road improvements, and rechartering of National Bank (American System/Nationalist Program)
Henry Clay lobbied aggressively for American System, often referred to as "Henry Clay's American System"
Era of Good Feelings
Only one political party, briefly leaves United States with unity
Chief Justice John Marshall's rulings strengthens federal government
Panic of 1819 causes economic turmoil and nearly ends good feelings
No nationally organized political opposition results from panic
Westward Expansion
John Quincy Adams negotiated treaties to fix U.S. borders and open new territories
Acquisition of Florida from Spanish through Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819
International tensions caused by revolutions in Central and South America
Monroe Doctrine: Policy of mutual non-interference and America's right to intervene in its own hemisphere
Monroe Doctrine is first of several doctrines that will become foreign policy
Slavery Debate
New period of expansion results in national debate over slavery
Missouri is the first state carved out of Louisiana Purchase and slavery debate continues until Civil War.
Election of 1824
Prior to 1824, electors chosen by state legislatures or congressional caucuses
By 1824, majority of states allowed voters to choose presidential electors directly
Democratic-Republican caucus chose William H. Crawford, leading to opposition and demise of caucus system
Andrew Jackson received the greatest number of popular votes and electoral votes but no one had a majority
Election decided in the House of Representatives, with Speaker of the House Clay supporting Adams
Corrupt Bargain
Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State, leading to allegations of a corrupt bargain between the two
Adams and Clay both vowed to be removed in the election of 1828
William Crawford suffered a stroke after the initial election and was not a real contender for the House vote
Constitution
In cases where there is no majority winner in the Electoral College, the three top electoral winners go on to House election
Andrew Jackson's era as president is an important period in American history
Jackson's campaign for presidency in 1824 was vicious, with surrogates accusing opponents of corruption and misconduct
The campaign eventually led to the formation of the present-day Democratic Party
In 1828, Jackson won the election by a large margin and became the first president who wasn't born in Virginia or named Adams
Jackson was seen as the epitome of a self-made man and had the interests of the West in mind
Among his first acts as president, Jackson dismissed numerous government officials and replaced them with political supporters
This led to criticism of cronyism and the rise of the spoils system, in which jobs were traded for political favors
Jackson's popularity ushered in the age of Jacksonian democracy, which replaced Jeffersonian republicanism
Jacksonian democracy characterized by universal white manhood suffrage and a strong presidency
Jackson used his popularity to challenge Congress and the Supreme Court in a way that none of his predecessors had
However, Jacksonian democracy is not a coherent vision of how a government should function and Jackson was not as great a thinker as Jefferson.
Jackson's treatment of the Cherokees with the Indian Removal Act of 1830 is one of the most criticized policies by modern scholars.
The concept of treating Native Americans as "foreign nations" was established by the British, and the US government continued this policy after gaining independence.
Some Americans, such as Thomas Jefferson, believed that assimilation into American culture could be a solution to the "Indian Problem."
By the time of Jackson's presidency, there were "Five Civilized Tribes" living in the South, including the Cherokee nation. They had developed a written language, converted to Christianity, and embraced agriculture.
The problem arose when gold was discovered on Cherokee land and citizens of Georgia demanded that the Cherokees comply with the Indian Removal Act, which demanded that they resettle in Oklahoma.
Jackson argued that moving away from white society was the best way to protect themselves from white encroachment and maintain their traditional customs.
The Cherokees refused and brought their case to the Supreme Court, which sided with them in two cases. However, Jackson refused to comply with the Court's decision and thousands of Cherokees were forced to walk to Oklahoma in what is known as the Trail of Tears. Thousands died of sickness and starvation along the way.
Another issue during Jackson's presidency was the doctrine of nullification, where states believed they had the right to disobey federal laws if they found them unconstitutional.
The Tariff of 1828, also known as the Tariff of Abominations, was passed during the Adams administration but almost turned into a national crisis during Jackson's administration.
In 1828, John C. Calhoun, Jackson's vice president, anonymously published "The South Carolina Exposition and Protest" arguing that states who felt the 50 percent tariff was unfairly high could nullify the law.
Distrust of big government and northeastern power brokers
Downsizing the federal government and strengthening the presidency through the use of veto
Opposed reform movements that called for increased government activism
Vetoed the rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States (BUS) and withdrew federal funds to deposit in state "pet" banks
Believed the BUS protected northeastern interests at the expense of the West
Argued that the bank was an unconstitutional monopoly, but the Supreme Court ruled against him
Preferred "hard currency" such as gold or silver
Specie Circular, which ended the policy of selling government land on credit, caused a money shortage and a sharp decrease in the treasury, and helped trigger the Panic of 1837
Congress overturned the circular in the last days of Jackson's final term
Grew to be an ever more controversial issue during the time of Jacksonian Democracy
As the northern abolition movement grew stronger, the South experienced several slave revolts
More brutal disciplinary measures by slaveholders
Nat Turner's Rebellion, a slave rebellion where Nat Turner rallied a gang that killed and mutilated 60 whites.
In retaliation, 200 enslaved people were executed, some with no connection at all to the rebellion
Fearful that other enslaved people would emulate Turner's exploits, southern states passed a series of restrictive laws, known as slave codes, prohibiting Black people from congregating and learning to read
Other state laws even prevented whites from questioning the legitimacy of slavery
After Turner's Rebellion, Virginia's House of Burgesses debated ending bondage but did not pass a law.
Democratic Party and Whig Party
Jackson's Democratic party unable to represent all constituencies (northern abolitionists, southern plantation owners, western pioneers)
Whig party formed as opposition to Democratic party
By 1834, almost as many congressmen supported Whig party as Democratic party
Whigs were a loose coalition united by opposition to Democratic party policies
Whigs believed in government activism, especially in social issues
Many Whigs were religious and supported temperance movement and enforcement of the Sabbath
Whig Beliefs
Similar to Federalists in support of manufacturing, opposition to new immigrants, and Westward Expansion
Election of 1836 and Panic of 1837
Jackson supported Democrat Martin Van Buren for vice president
Van Buren assumed presidency during economic crisis (Panic of 1837)
Van Buren's policy of favoring hard currency made money hard to come by, worsening the crisis
Economic downturn lasted through Van Buren's term, making re-election unlikely
William Henry Harrison and John Tyler
Whig William Henry Harrison became president in 1841, but died a month later
Vice president John Tyler, a former Democrat, assumed presidency
Tyler championed states' rights, alienating Whig leadership
Tyler vetoed numerous Whig bills, causing his cabinet to resign in protest
Tyler referred to as "president without a party," and his presidency lasted only one term.
Economic Developments in 19th century US
Economic developments played important role in political events leading to Civil War and determined characteristics of different regions
Along with social developments, economic factors laid foundation for important issues in American society for following century (abolitionism, women's suffrage, temperance)
Beginnings of a Market Economy
Before Revolutionary War, most settlers raised crops for subsistence, not market
People made own clothing and built own furniture and homes, cash transactions were rare
Developments in manufacturing and transportation led to market economy development
Market economy favors those who specialize, but can also lead to overproduction and dependence on market
Rapid transition from subsistence economy to market economy in first decades of 19th century
War of 1812 and National Economy
War of 1812 and events leading up to it forced US to become less dependent on imports and develop stronger national economy
Cotton Gin and Interchangeable parts
Cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, revolutionized southern agriculture and increased demand for cotton
Spread of cotton as chief crop intensified South's dependence on slave labor
Other notable inventions that revolutionized agriculture include steel plow and mechanical reaper
Whitney's second innovation was use of interchangeable parts in manufacturing, which made mass production more efficient and cost-effective.
North and Textile Industry
Textile industry in the North was developed by advances in machine technology and U.S. embargo on British goods prior to War of 1812
Textile mills in New England produced thread and hired local women to weave thread into cloth at home
Power loom in 1813 allowed manufacturers to produce both thread and finished fabric in own factories quickly and efficiently
Shortage of labor in New England led to worker-enticement programs like Lowell system
Other industries such as clothing manufacturers, retailers, brokers, and commercial banks grew around textile industry
Transportation Industry
Prior to 1820s, travel and shipping along east-west routes was difficult and most trade centered on north-south routes
Construction of National Road and completion of Erie Canal in 1825 made east-west travel and trade more accessible
Northeast established itself as center of commerce due to success of Erie Canal
Other regions attempted to duplicate success of Erie Canal with construction of thousands of miles of canals in the Northeast and Midwest, but most failed
Railroads developed as convenient means of transporting goods and by 1850, the Canal Era had ended.
Transportation and Communication
Inventions of steam engine and telegraph revolutionized travel and shipping, allowing for faster and more efficient transportation and communication
Steamships replaced sailing ships for long sea voyages and railroads replaced land travel
The Transportation Revolution by 1855, the cost to send things across America had fallen to one-twentieth of what it had cost in 1825, and they arrived in one-fifth the time.
Telegraph allowed for immediate long-distance communication and widespread use followed its invention almost immediately
Farming
Mechanization revolutionized farming in the first half of the 19th century, with many machines such as mechanical plow, sower, reaper, thresher, baler, and cotton gin coming into common use
Growth of market economy changed farming as more food went to market
Farming in the Northeast faced difficulties due to rocky, hilly terrain and over-farming of land, leading to some farmers switching to livestock and fruits/vegetables, or leaving for manufacturing jobs
Midwest became America's chief source of grains and farms were larger and more adaptable to new technology, with banks providing capital for modern equipment and trade routes providing access to markets.
Louisiana Purchase removed major obstacle to U.S. western settlement
War of 1812 removed another obstacle by depriving Native Americans of British ally
By 1820, U.S. had settled region east of Mississippi River and was quickly expanding west
Americans believed in God-given right to western territories, known as America's Manifest Destiny
Some argued for annexation of Canada, Mexico, and all of Americas
Terrain and climate could be cold and unforgiving
Settlers from East moving into areas belonging to Native Americans and Mexicans
Mexico declared independence from Spain in 1821, included what is now Texas and Southwest
Mexican government established liberal land policies to entice settlers
Tens of thousands of Americans flooded the region, rarely becoming Mexican citizens
Ignored Mexican law, including prohibition of slavery
Mexican attempts to regain control led to rebellion and declaration of independence
Texas was independent country called Republic of Texas
Existence of slavery guaranteed Congressional battle over statehood, not admitted to Union until 1845
Thousands of settlers traveled to Willamette Valley via the Oregon Trail in early 1840s
Americans not first in area, large Native American population and British claiming for Canada
Russians also staked claim, both British and Americans saw them as a threat
Polk administration settled territorial dispute by signing treaty with England
Late 1840s, destination shifted to California due to Gold Rush
Discovery of gold in California mountains attracted over 100,000 people in 2 years
Most did not strike it rich, but settled area due to hospitable agriculture and access to Pacific Ocean for trade centers like San Francisco.
Three different sections of the country- North, South, and West (including Midwest) developed in different directions
North becoming industrialized, commercial center
South remained agrarian, chief crops- tobacco and cotton, constantly looking west for more land
Western economic interests varied but were largely rooted in commercial farming, fur trapping, and real-estate speculation
Technological advances in communications, transportation, industry, and banking helped it become the nation's commercial center
Farming played less of a role in northeastern economy than elsewhere in the country
Legal slavery became increasingly uncommon in this region throughout the early 1800s
Remained almost entirely agrarian
Chief crops- tobacco and cotton required vast acreage
Anxious to protect slavery, which the large landholders depended on, Southerners also looked for new slave territories to include in the Union
To strengthen their position in Congress and protect slavery from northern legislators
Westerners generally distrusted the North, which they regarded as the home of powerful banks that could take their land away
They had little more use for the South, whose rigidly hierarchical society was at odds with the egalitarianism of the West
Most Westerners wanted to avoid involvement in the slavery issue, which they regarded as irrelevant to their lives
Ironically, western expansion was the core of the most important conflicts leading up to the Civil War.
Growth of American economy in early 19th century brought about numerous social changes
Cotton gin and Industrial Revolution in England altered southern agriculture and increased reliance on slave labor
Development of commerce led to larger middle class, especially in North but also in southern and midwestern cities
Industrialization resulted in bigger cities with large (and often impoverished) migrant and immigrant neighborhoods
Westward migration created new frontier culture as pioneers dealt with uniqueness of West's landscape and climate
Each of these circumstances influenced people's attitudes and ambitions and set the scene for social and political events of the era
North became the nation's industrial and commercial center during the first half of the 19th century
Home to many of the nation's major cities
Cities faced numerous problems, lack of powerful urban governments to oversee rapid expansion
Modern waste disposal, plumbing, sewers, and incineration not yet developed, cities could be toxic environments
Proximity in which people lived and worked, coupled with sanitation problems, made epidemics likely
Cities meant jobs, many northern farmers moved to cities to work in new factories
Cities offered more opportunities for social advancement
Public schooling, labor unions, clubs and associations for middle and upper class to exert influence on government and society
Cities provided a wide variety of leisure-time options, such as theater and sports
Great disparity in distribution of wealth in northern cities, elite few controlled most of the personal wealth and led lives of power and comfort
Beneath them was the middle class, made up of tradesmen, brokers, and other professionals
Middle class often rose from the working class, who often worked in factories or at low-paying crafts, women often worked at home or as domestic servants
Cult of domesticity, supported by popular magazines and novels that glorified home life
Middle class also made up most of the market for luxury goods such as housewares and fine furniture
Working-class families lived just above poverty level, any calamity could plunge them into debt
Those in poverty were mostly recent immigrants, numbers swelled in the 1840s and 1850s
Immigrants faced discrimination and prejudice, often lived in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions
Westward migration brought new set of social problems, including issues of land ownership, displacement of Native Americans, and question of slavery.
The majority of Southerners lived in rural areas in near isolation in the South.
Family and church played a dominant role in social life, as there were few people around to support organized cultural and leisure events.
The South had few centers of commerce and limited infrastructure compared to the North.
The wealthiest Southern citizens formed an aristocracy of plantation owners who dominated southern society politically, socially, and economically.
Plantation owners grew cotton and tobacco, and many convinced themselves that the slave system benefited all of its participants, including the enslaved people.
Enslaved people lived in a state of subsistence poverty, often overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, and worked long hours at difficult and tedious labor.
Enslaved people developed a unique culture that blended aspects of their African roots with elements of Christianity, and developed subtle methods of resistance to maintain their dignity.
The majority of Southerners farmed small plots of land and were relatively poor, but they were generally self-sufficient.
The West and Frontier Living in the 19th century saw the constant changing of the frontier's boundaries.
In 1800, the frontier lay east of the Mississippi River, but by 1820, nearly all of this eastern territory had attained statehood and the frontier region consisted of much of the Louisiana Purchase.
Settlers also moved to Texas and then to a part of Mexico in the late 1820s and 1830s and by the early 1840s, the frontier had expanded to include the Pacific Northwest.
The US government actively encouraged settlers to move west by giving away or selling large tracts of land to war veterans and loaned money at reduced rates to civilians.
Settlers in the Ohio Valley and points west found the area was hospitable to grain production and dairy farming due to the flat land and new farm implements.
Transportation advances also made shipping produce easier and more profitable, leading to the Midwest becoming known as "the nation’s breadbasket."
Fur trading was another common commercial enterprise on the frontiers, with fur traders often being the first pioneers in a region.
Frontier life was rugged and settlers struggled against the climate, elements, and Native Americans.
The frontier offered opportunities for wealth, freedom, and social advancement, making it a symbol of freedom and equality to many Americans.
The 19th century saw the beginnings of true social reform in the United States, with many social reform movements growing out of the Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival.
Women were particularly active in reform groups, particularly those of the middle and upper classes.
The western and central regions of New York State were known as the Burned-over District for the spiritual fervor in the area.
Joseph Smith formed the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints in 1830.
Smith's preaching, particularly his acceptance of polygamy, drew strong opposition in the East and Midwest, culminating in his death by a mob while imprisoned in Illinois.
The Mormons, realizing they would never be allowed to practice their faith in the East, made the long, difficult trek to the Salt Lake Valley led by Brigham Young.
There, they settled and transformed the area from desert into farmland through extensive irrigation.
The Mormons' success was largely attributable to the settlers' strong sense of community.
The Second Great Awakening was only one source of the antebellum reform movements.
By the 1820s and 1830s, most of the Founding Fathers were dead, but they left a legacy of freedom and equality, expressed in part in the Declaration of Independence as well as the Preamble to the Constitution.
In the 1830s, "We, the People" still meant white males.
Many women were active in the abolitionist movement, and it was their exclusion from participation at a worldwide antislavery convention held in London in 1840 that convinced women like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott to hold the first women's rights convention in 1848 in Seneca Falls in upstate New York.
Horace Mann was instrumental in pushing for public education and education reform in general. He lengthened the school year, established the first "normal school" for teacher training, and used the first standardized books in education.
Before the 1830s, few whites fought aggressively for the liberation of the enslaved people.
The Quakers believed slavery to be morally wrong and argued for its end.
Most other antislavery whites sought gradual abolition, coupled with colonization, a movement to return Black people to Africa.
The religious and moral fervor that accompanied the Second Great Awakening, however, persuaded more and more whites, particularly Northerners, that slavery was a great evil.
White abolitionists divided into two groups: Moderates wanted emancipation to take place slowly and with the cooperation of slave owners, while immediatists wanted emancipation at once.
Abolitionism is an important topic on every AP U.S. History Exam.
But it is worth noting that, right up to the Civil War, abolitionists were widely considered extremists.
Far and away the leading reform movement of the time was the temperance movement.
Nearly all abolitionists believed in temperance; few supporters of temperance were abolitionists.
The abolition movement succeeded, slavery is now illegal, but the success of the temperance movement was short-lived (Prohibition lasted only from 1920 to 1933).
1844 U.S. Election
Candidates: James Polk (Democrat) vs. Henry Clay (Whig)
Party Platforms
Whigs:
Internal Improvements
Bridges
Harbors
Canals
Vision: Civilized lands with bustling towns and factories (e.g. New England)
Democrats:
Expansionists
Borders pushed outward
Private ownership of newly added land (e.g. isolated plantations in the South)
No government involvement in newly added land
Election Results
Close election
Polk wins
The Polk Presidency
Goals
Restore government funds in Treasury (vs. pet banks under Jackson)
Reduce tariffs
Accomplished by end of 1846
Texas and Oregon
Proposed annexation by President Tyler (last days of administration)
Northern congressmen alarmed (potential 5 slave states below Missouri Compromise line)
Demanded annexation of entire Oregon Country
"54°40´ or Fight" demands, but Polk recognizes possibility of two territorial wars
Conceded on demands for expansion into Canada
Negotiated reasonable American-Canadian border
Oregon Treaty signed with Great Britain in 1846
Acquired peaceful ownership of Oregon, Washington, and parts of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana
Established current northern border of the region
Mexican-American War
Efforts to claim Southwest from Mexico (failed attempt to buy territory)
Challenged Mexican authorities on Texas border
Mexican attack on American troops
Used border attack to argue for declaration of war
Declared war by Congress in 1846
Whigs (e.g. Abraham Lincoln) questioned Polk's claim of Mexican first fire
War began in 1846
Mexican-American War & Public Opinion
Northerners: feared new states in West would be slave states, thus tipping balance in favor of proslavery forces
Opponents: believed war was provoked by slaveholders, resulting in slave owners having control over government
Referenced as "Slave Power" by suspicious Northerners
Gag rule in 1836 raised suspicions of Slave Power
Wilmot Proviso: Congressional bill to prohibit extension of slavery in territories gained from Mexico
House vote fell along sectional lines: Northern in favor, Southern opposed
Result in Free-Soil Party: regional, single-issue party opposed to slavery expansion (competition with slave labor)
Mexican War: successful for American forces, resulted in Mexican Cession (Southwest land) for $15 million
Gadsden Purchase ($10 million): southern regions of modern Arizona and New Mexico for transcontinental railroad
Slavery Expansion & Debates
Addition of new territory increased nation's potential wealth, but posed problems regarding slavery status
East of Mississippi: evenly divided between lands suited for plantation agriculture (slavery) and those not
West of Mississippi: not suitable for traditional plantation crops
Southerners: saw future where slavery was confined to southeast quarter and outvoted by free-soil advocates
Tried to open up more areas to slavery through popular sovereignty
Territories decide by vote whether to allow slavery within borders.
Background
Sectional strife over new territories started as the ink was drying on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
During the Gold Rush, settlers had flooded into California and it wanted statehood with a constitution prohibiting slavery, opposed by South
Debate grew hostile leading to discussion of secession among southern legislators
Major Players
Henry Clay, Whig Senator from Kentucky
Drafted and proposed the Compromise of 1850
Clarified the final boundaries of Texas
Proposed banning slavery in the entire Mexican Cession and wanted stringent Fugitive Slave Act
John Calhoun, Democrat Senator from South Carolina
Defender of slavery and opposed the Compromise
Advocate for states’ rights and secession, popular sovereignty for Mexican Cession territories
Daniel Webster, Whig Senator from Massachusetts
Supported the Compromise to preserve the Union and avert Civil War
Characterized himself "as an American" in the Seventh of March speech
Risked offending abolitionist voter base by accepting the Compromise
Stephen Douglas, Democrat
Worked with Henry Clay to hammer out a workable solution, the Compromise of 1850
The Compromise of 1850
Defeated in Congress when presented as a complete package
Douglas broke the package into separate bills and managed to get majority support for each
Admitted California as a free state and stronger fugitive slave law enacted
Created the territories of Utah and New Mexico, left status of slavery up to each territory to decide
Abolished slave trade, not slavery itself, in Washington, D.C.
Issues with the Compromise
Definition of popular sovereignty was vague and different interpretations by Northerners and Southerners
Fugitive slave law made it easier to retrieve escaped enslaved people, but required cooperation from citizens of free states and seen as immoral
Increase in Antislavery Sentiments
Publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852
Sentimental novel depicting plantation life based on information from abolitionist friends
Sold over a million copies and adapted into popular plays that toured America and Europe
Powerful piece of propaganda awakening antislavery sentiment in millions who had never thought about the issue before
The Kansas-Nebraska Act and “Bleeding Kansas”
The Kansas-Nebraska Act was enacted in 1854 to establish civil authority and secure land in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, where no civil authority existed.
The act was promoted by Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas to bring money and jobs to his home state through the termination of the transcontinental railway in Illinois.
The act was passed despite objections from antislavery Whigs and Democrats, leading to the weakening of the Fugitive Slave Act through personal liberty laws in northern states.
The act drove the final stake into the heart of the Whig Party and led to the formation of the Republican Party, which aimed to keep slavery out of the territories and appeal to a wider constituency through a range of issues.
The American party (also known as the Know-Nothings) was formed around the issue of nativism, but the party self-destructed over disagreement about slavery.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act led to violence in the territories, as abolitionists and proslavery groups rushed in and both antislavery and proslavery constitutions were sent to Washington.
Kansas became known as "Bleeding Kansas" or "Bloody Kansas" due to the conflict between the two sides, which resulted in the deaths of over 200 people.
The events in Kansas further polarized the nation, leading to the election of James Buchanan as the 1856 Democratic candidate. Buchanan won the election, carrying the South, while the Republicans carried the North.
Buchanan, Dred Scott, and the Election of 1860
James Buchanan was US president from 1857-1861 and worked to maintain the status quo by enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act and opposing abolitionist activism.
Dred Scott v. Sandford was a case heard by the Supreme Court two days after Buchanan took office, where Scott, a former slave, sued for his freedom. The Court ruled that enslaved people were property, not citizens, and that Congress couldn't regulate slavery in the territories.
The Dred Scott decision was a major victory for Southerners and a turning point in the decade of crisis, it was vehemently denounced in the North as further proof of a Slave Power.
The 1858 Illinois Senate race between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas was nationally watched, with Lincoln delivering his "House Divided" speech and Douglas damaging his political career with his ambiguous stance on popular sovereignty.
John Brown’s raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859 and his subsequent execution sparked northern abolitionist support.
The 1860 Democratic convention split between Northern Democrats supporting Douglas and Southerners supporting Breckinridge.
The election of 1860 showed the nation was on the brink of fracture, with Lincoln and Douglas contesting the North, and Breckinridge representing the South.
Civil War Era
Background
Slavery was the central issue, but not the only or explicitly stated reason for the Civil War
Four Border States (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) were slave states that fought for the Union
Northerners fought to preserve the Union, while Southerners fought for states’ rights
Lincoln's views on slavery evolved
As late as 1862, Lincoln's primary goal was to save the Union, not necessarily abolish slavery
Battles
Battle of Antietam
First battle fought in the East where the Union wasn't completely defeated
Union claimed victory and showed Britain and France that they weren't a lost cause
Gave Lincoln platform to announce the Emancipation Proclamation
Battle of Gettysburg
Most northern point the Confederacy had reached at the time
Lee's troops suffered massive casualties and were forced to retreat
Boosted confidence for the Union
Gettysburg Address
Delivered four months after Battle of Gettysburg
Redefined the War as a struggle for human equality, not just preservation of Union
Influence of Political, Economic, and Social Factors
The Civil War impacted not only the battlefields, but also the political, economic, and social realms
Political and diplomatic consequences of battles like Antietam and Gettysburg
Political, social, and economic conditions influenced the outcome of the war
The Civil War and the Confederacy
Central Control Under the Confederacy
Confederate government brought southern states under greater central control
Jefferson Davis took control of southern economy and imposed taxes
Davis took control of transportation and created large bureaucracy to oversee economic developments
Declared martial law and suspended habeas corpus to maintain control
Lincoln was using similar steps in the North, causing chafing in the Confederacy
Economic Modernization and Challenges
Davis tried to modernize the southern economy, but lagged behind in industrialization
Rapid economic growth led to rapid inflation, causing poverty in the South
Confederacy imposed conscription, causing further poverty and class conflict
Wealthy were allowed to hire surrogates and were exempt from military service, causing increased tensions
Towards the End of the War
Class tensions led to widespread desertions from the Confederate Army
Southerners in small towns ignored the government and tried to carry on as if there was no war
Many resisted when asked to support passing troops
The Civil War and the Union
I. Economic Impacts A. Northern economy
Boosted by demand for war-related goods (uniforms, weapons)
Loss of southern markets initially harmed economy
War economy brought boom period
Entrepreneurs became wealthy, some through war profiteering
Corruption widespread, prompted congressional investigation B. Southern economy
Accelerated inflation rate (over 300%)
II. Workers and Unions A. Workers concerned about job security, formed unions B. Businesses opposed unions, blacklisted members, broke strikes C. Republican Party supported business, opposed to regulation
III. Government Powers A. Increase in central government power B. Lincoln's actions
Economic development programs without congressional approval
Government loans and grants to businesses, raised tariffs
Suspended writ of habeas corpus in border states
Printed national currency C. Treasury Secretary: Salmon P. Chase
Issued greenbacks, precursor to modern currency
Salmon P. Chase
Initially, neither the Union nor the Confederacy declared the Civil War to be about slavery
The Constitution protected slavery where it already existed, so many opponents were against extending slavery into new territories
Lincoln argued for gradual emancipation, compensation to slaveholders, and colonization of freed enslaved people
Radical Republicans in Congress wanted immediate emancipation and introduced confiscation acts in 1861 and 1862
The second confiscation act allowed the government to liberate all enslaved people, but Lincoln refused to enforce it
Lincoln's idea of gradual emancipation was based on a law in Pennsylvania passed in 1780
Enslaved people supported the Southern war effort by growing crops and cooking meals, leading to their liberation becoming a side effect of Union victory
Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862 after the Union victory at Antietam
The Emancipation Proclamation stated that the government would liberate all slaves in states "in rebellion" on January 1, 1863
It did not free slaves in border states or those already under Union control, and allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union without giving up slavery
The Proclamation declared the Civil War as a war against slavery and changed its purpose
Lincoln supported complete emancipation and the Thirteenth Amendment before his reelection campaign
After his reelection, he tried to negotiate a settlement with Southern leaders for reentry into the Union and voting on the Thirteenth Amendment.
The Election of 1864 and the End of the Civil War
General Opinion
North and South both favored end of the war
George McClellan lost due to opposing majority of Democrats
Southern Population
Less than 1% owned over 100 enslaved people
Non-slaveholding farmers resented Confederacy and war
Northern Opinion
War Democrats: war necessary to preserve Union
Copperheads: accused Lincoln of national social revolution
Most violent opposition in New York City
Draft riots in 1863
Irish immigrants resentful of being drafted
Feared competition with former slaves for low-paying jobs
War Progress
Summer 1864 victories helped Lincoln's reelection
Union victory virtually assured by early spring 1865
Established Freedman's Bureau for newly liberated Black people
First federal, social welfare program in U.S. history
End of War
Confederate leaders surrendered in April 1865
John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln five days later
Devastating consequences for reunited nation
War Cost
Over 3 million men fought
Over 500,000 died
As many seriously wounded
Both governments ran up huge debts
South ravaged by Union soldiers
Sherman's March from Atlanta to sea in 1864
Union Army burned everything in its wake
Foreshadowed wide-scale warfare of 20th century
Political Impact
War permanently expanded role of government
Government grew rapidly to manage economy and war
Reconstruction
Reconstruction refers to the period of 1865-1877 and the process of readmitting southern states, rebuilding physical damage, and integrating newly freed Blacks into society
Lincoln's Ten-Percent Plan was a plan to allow southern states back into the Union after 10% of voters took an oath of allegiance and accepted the Thirteenth Amendment, but was seen as too lenient by Republicans
The Wade-Davis Bill provided for military rule in former Confederate states and required 50% of the electorate to swear an oath of allegiance, but was pocket vetoed by Lincoln and later died
Lincoln's and the Wade-Davis Bill did not make provisions for Black suffrage
With Lincoln's assassination, Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency and developed the Reconstruction Plan which required a loyalty oath but barred many former Confederate elite from taking it
Johnson's Reconstruction Plan was met with resistance from Congress, leading to his impeachment trial
Johnson's impeachment trial, the first of a U.S. President, was a result of political conflicts between Johnson and the Radical Republicans over Reconstruction policies.
The Failure of Reconstruction
General Overview:
Reconstruction had successes and failures
New state constitutions allowed all men to vote, elected government positions, public schools, and industrial development
Failure was due to high tax rates, propaganda war, corruption, and political scandals
Successes:
All southern men could vote
Elected government positions replaced appointed positions
Public schools and social institutions created
Industrial and rail development stimulated
Black people serving in southern governments
Failures:
High tax rates and public opposition
Propaganda war against Reconstruction
Corruption of Northerners and Southerners
Political scandals during Grant's administration
Political Scandals during Grant's Administration:
Black Friday, 1869
Credit Mobilier scandal, 1872
New York Custom House ring, 1872
Star Route frauds, 1872-1876
Sanborn incident, 1874
Pratt & Boyd scandal, 1875
Whiskey Ring, 1875
Delano affair, 1875
Trading post scandal, 1876
Alexander Cattell & Co. scandal, 1876
Safe burglary, 1876
Diverted public's attention from postwar conditions in the South
Civil War officially ended but a war of intimidation began by insurgent groups (Ku Klux Klan, White League)
Attorney General Amos Akerman declared the actions of these groups amount to war
Federal troops were sent in to oppose the Klan under the Enforcement Acts
Reconstruction did little to alter the South's power structure or redistribute wealth to freedmen
Federal government signaled early on it would ease up restrictions and President Grant enforced the law loosely
Supreme Court restricted the scope of the 14th and 15th Amendments, allowing for voting restrictions for Black people
President Grant's administration was corrupt and tarnished Reconstruction
1872 election, Liberal Republicans abandoned coalition supporting Reconstruction due to corruption
Grant moved closer to conciliation and several acts pardoned rebels
Southern Democrats regained control by 1876 and called themselves Redeemers, intending to reverse Republican policies
1876 election was contested, Samuel J. Tilden won popular vote but needed electoral vote
Compromise of 1877 was reached to resolve the election, Hayes won and ended military reconstruction, federal troops pulled out of Southern states
Military reconstruction ended, life for Black people became worse and took nearly 100 years for the federal government to fulfill the ideal of equality expressed in the Declaration of Independence.
Southern Blacks During and After Reconstruction
End of the Civil War
Ambiguous state of freedom
Most stayed on plantations as sharecroppers
Some searched for separated family members
Freedman’s Bureau assistance
Jobs and housing
Money and food for those in need
Schools established, including Fisk University and Howard University
Terribly underfunded with little impact once military reconstruction ended
Lack of Redistributed Land
Freedman’s Bureau attempted to establish labor contracting system
Failed, Blacks preferred sharecropping
Traded portion of crop for right to work someone else’s land
System worked at first, but landowners eventually abused it
Widespread at end of Reconstruction
No court would fairly try cases of sharecroppers vs. landowners
Sharecropping existed until mid-20th century, included more whites than Blacks
Progressive States
Mississippi had large Black population and was most progressive
Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce became first Black senators in 1870 and 1875
Robert Smalls founded Republican Party of South Carolina and served in U.S. House of Representatives in the 1880s
Key Vocabulary
Freedman’s Bureau
Sharecropping
Hiram Revels
Blanche K. Bruce
Robert Smalls
Thomas A. Edison's Workshop
Built in 1876 in Menlo Park, New Jersey
Produced important inventions of the century
Edison's greatest invention was the light bulb
Pioneer work in power plant development was immensely important
Light Bulb and Power Plants
Allowed for the extension of the workday (previously ended at sundown)
Wider availability of electricity
Created new uses for electricity for industry and home
Age of Invention
Last quarter of 19th century known as Age of Invention
Many technological advances made (e.g. Edison's)
Advances generated greater opportunities for mass production
Economic Growth
Economy grew at a tremendous rate
People known as "captains of industry" (or "robber barons") became extremely rich and powerful
Owned and controlled new manufacturing enterprises
Industrialization: introduction of faster machines in manufacturing leading to economies of scale and decreased cost per unit.
Assembly line production: employees performing repetitive tasks leading to increased efficiency but also dangerous working conditions and long working hours.
Corporate Consolidation: large businesses resulting from economies of scale and lack of government regulations, leading to monopolies and holding companies.
Horizontal Integration: combining smaller companies within the same industry to form a larger company through legal buyouts or illegal practices.
Vertical Integration: one company buys out all the factors of production from raw materials to finished product, still allowing competition in the marketplace.
Problems with Consolidation: required large amounts of money leading to financial panics and bank failures, public resentment, and government response in the form of antitrust legislation.
Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890: law forbidding "restraint of trade" combination, ambiguous wording leading to pro-business Supreme Court interpretation.
U.S. v. E. C. Knight Co. 1895: Court ruled that E. C. Knight, controlling 98% of the sugar refining plants, did not violate the Sherman Antitrust Act.
Gospel of Wealth: idea that wealth should be used for the betterment of society and not just for personal gain, advocated by Andrew Carnegie.
Factories and City Life
Factories were established in cities in the 19th century to reduce labor costs and maximize profits
Women and children were hired, as well as newly arrived immigrants in search of work
As a result, the cities suffered from poverty, crime, disease, and a lack of livable housing
Factories were dangerous, and there was no insurance or workmen's compensation
Middle class moved away to nicer neighborhoods, leaving mostly immigrants and migrants in the city
Majority of immigrants arrived from Southern and Eastern Europe starting from 1880
Ethnic neighborhoods, tenements were common, and minorities faced prejudice and limited job opportunities
Municipal governments were practically nonexistent, and services for the poor were provided by churches, private charities, and ethnic communities, or by corrupt political bosses
Bosses helped the poor find homes, jobs, apply for citizenship, and voting rights but at a high cost of criminal means
William "Boss" Tweed of Tammany Hall in New York City was a notorious political boss who embezzled millions of dollars through corruption
Widespread misery in cities led to the formation of labor unions to improve treatment of workers
Labor unions were considered radical and faced opposition from the government, businesses, and the courts
Knights of Labor was one of the first national labor unions, founded in 1869
Goals of the Knights of Labor included an 8-hour workday, equal pay for equal work, child labor laws, safety and sanitary codes, federal income tax, and more.
Knights of Labor
Advocated arbitration over strikes
Became increasingly violent in efforts to achieve goals
Popularity declined due to violence and association with political radicalism
Terrence Powderly, failed strikes, and Haymarket Square Riot contributed to decline
Public saw unions as subversive and violent
Homestead Steel Strike
Workers protested wage cut, refusal to form a union
Factory manager Henry Clay Frick locked out workers, hired replacements, and called in Pinkerton Detective force
Clash between Pinkertons and workers led to deaths and retreat of Pinkertons
Pennsylvania state militia ended strike, Frick hired new workers
Pullman Palace Car Factory Strike
Workers faced wage cut, increased housing costs
American Railway Union joined the strike, 250,000 railway workers walked off job, shutting down rail travel in 27 states
ARU president Eugene Debs refused to end strike despite court order
Debs convicted and jailed, became leader of American Socialist Party after release
American Federation of Labor (AFL)
Samuel Gompers, focused on bread and butter issues, higher wages and shorter workdays
Excluded unskilled workers, confederation of trade unions
Refused to accept immigrants, Black people, women among membership
Charitable Middle-Class Organizations
Lobbied local governments for building safety codes, better sanitation, public schools
Founded and lived in settlement houses in poor neighborhoods
Community centers providing schooling, childcare, cultural activities
Jane Addams, Hull House in Chicago, awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 1931
Improvement of Life
Wealthy and middle class improved while poor suffered
Access to luxuries, leisure time, popular diversions like sports, theater, vaudeville, movies
Growth of newspaper industry with Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst
Sensational reporting, yellow journalism became popular.
Advances in the Machine Age
Primarily affected northern cities
South During Machine Age
Agriculture continued as main form of labor
Textile mills and tobacco processing plants emerged
Majority of Southerners remained farmers
Postwar Economics in the South
Many farmers forced to sell land
Wealthy landowners bought and consolidated into larger farms
Landless farmers (Black & white) forced into sharecropping
Crop lien system designed to keep poor in debt
Unscrupulous landlords kept poor in virtual slavery
Booker T. Washington’s Atlanta Compromise Speech
Outlined hope for drawing near to white race
Pledge for patient, sympathetic help of Black race
Call for higher good (blotting out of racial animosities)
Desire for absolute justice and law obedience
Jim Crow Laws
Federal government exerting less influence
Numerous discriminatory laws passed by towns and cities
Supreme Court ruled Fourteenth Amendment did not protect Blacks from private discrimination
1883 - Court reversed Civil Rights Act of 1875
1896 - Supreme Court ruled “separate but equal” facilities were legal
Integration and Equal Rights
A far-off dream for most Black people
Booker T. Washington: Born into slavery, no illusions of white society accepting Blacks as equals
Promoted economic independence as means to improve Black lot
Founded Tuskegee Institute for vocational and industrial training for Black people
Accused of being an accommodationist
Refused to press for immediate equal rights
Reality of his time set his goals
Booker T. Washington vs. W. E. B. Du Bois
Washington's Atlanta Exposition speech
Washington viewed as submissive by Du Bois
Du Bois referred to speech as "The Atlanta Compromise"
The Railroads and Developments in the West
Ranchers and miners were growing industries in the western frontier
Ranchers drove their herds across the western plains and deserts, disregarding property rights and Native American rights to the land
Miners prospected for rich mines and sold their rights to mining companies when found
Lincoln challenged America to have a Transcontinental Railroad connecting the country within a decade (1863-1869)
Railroad construction was paid for by the public but the rail proprietors resisted government control of their industry
Railroad companies organized massive buffalo hunts, which nearly led to extinction of the species and caused conflict with Native Americans
Rails transformed depot towns into cities and facilitated faster travel, contact with ideas and technological advances from the East, and contributed to the Industrial Revolution
Rails also brought standardization of time telling through "railroad time" and time zones
Statehood of North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho was achieved by 1889
The result of the 1890 census prompted Turner's Frontier Thesis, which argued that the frontier shaped the American character, spirit, democracy, and provided a safety valve for urban areas
In the Great Plains, farming and ranching were the main forms of employment, aided by new farm machinery and mail-order retail
The Homestead Act and Morrill Land-Grant Act were passed by the federal government to attract settlers and develop the West
Agricultural science became a large industry in the US
The Nez Perce tribe in Oregon was forced to migrate to a reservation in Idaho, leading to resistance by Chief Joseph
With families and corporations heading West, government and conservation groups sought added protection of natural resources
U.S. Fish Commission was established to protect fish species, which led to the creation of National Parks and Forest Services.
National Politics
Gilded Age of American Politics:
Era between Reconstruction and 1900
Dubbed by Mark Twain
America appeared prosperous but wealth built on poverty of many
Shiny exterior of politics hiding corruption and patronage
Political machines, not municipal governments, ran cities
Big business bought votes in Congress and fleeced consumers
Workers had little protection from employer greed
Presidents were generally not corrupt but weak
Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Chester A. Arthur focused on civil service reform
Grover Cleveland believed in minimal government intervention
Benjamin Harrison and allies passed major legislation (meat inspection act, banning lotteries, battleships)
Activism led to public discomfort and return of Cleveland to White House
Regulating Business and Government:
First attempts at regulation in response to widespread corruption
States imposed railroad regulations due to price gouging
1877 Supreme Court upheld state law regulating railroads in Munn v. Illinois
Precedent for regulation in public interest established
1887 Congress passed first federal regulatory law (Interstate Commerce Act)
Set up the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroad activities
ICC was active until deregulated by Reagan administration in 1980s
Women's Suffrage:
Became an important political issue
Led by Susan B. Anthony
Bill introduced to Congress every year
Fight began in earnest
American Suffrage Association fought for state suffrage amendments
Partial successes achieved in gaining the vote on school issues
Women gained right to vote with 19th Amendment in 1920 (50 years after male suffrage)
Post-Civil War Era:
Increased production in both industrial and agricultural fronts
Drop in prices due to greater supply
Farmers faced trouble due to fixed payments in long-term debts
Farmers supported increased money supply for easier payments and inflation
Banks opposed the plan, preferring gold-backed money supply
Farmers' plan called for liberal use of silver coins (supported by western miners and midwestern/southern farmers)
Issue had elements of regionalism and class strife
Grange Movement and Farmers' Alliances:
Grange Movement founded in 1867, with over a million members by 1875
Cooperatives for farmers to buy machinery and sell crops as a group
Political endorsement and lobbying for legislation
Replaced by Farmers' Alliances, allowing women's political activism
Grew into political party People's Party (political arm of Populist movement)
Other groups formed by minority farmers (e.g. Las Gorras Blancas, Colored Farmers' Alliance)
People's Party:
1892 convention, with platform called the Omaha Platform
Call for silver coinage, government ownership of railroads and telegraphs, graduated income tax, direct election of senators, shorter workdays
1892 presidential candidate James Weaver received over 1 million votes
Populist goals gained popularity during the financial crisis of 1893-1897
Granger Laws:
Granger laws regulated the railroads in the 1870s and 1880s
Populist Movement:
1896 Populists backed Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan
Bryan ran on platform of free silver, loosening control of northern banking interests
Republicans allied with big businesses, McKinley received huge contributions from large companies
Bryan lost election, Populist movement declined with improved economy
Before the Civil War
Most Americans earned their living through farming
No federal income tax until 16th Amendment in 1913
Tariff was a huge controversy
Tariff of Abominations & Nullification Crisis
Tariff of Abominations (1828) caused Nullification Crisis during Jackson's first administration
Tariff after Civil War
Tariff dominated national politics
Industrialists demanded high tariffs to protect domestic industries
Farmers and laborers hurt by high tariffs
Democrats supported lower tariffs
Republicans advocated high protective tariffs
Tariff Laws
McKinley Tariff (1890) raised duties on imported goods almost 50%
Wilson-Gorman Tariff (1894) resembled McKinley Tariff
Tariff issue dominated congressional debate and had impact on foreign relations
Spanish-American War
Wilson-Gorman Tariff considered one of the causes of the Spanish-American War
Theodore Roosevelt
Assistant Secretary of Navy in 1898 during Spanish-American War
Ordered U.S. Pacific Fleet to Philippines, then led volunteer regiment in Cuba
Machine Age and American Production
American production capacity grew rapidly
America looked overseas for new markets due to increased nationalism and search for new markets
Expansionism & Imperialism
William H. Seward set precedent for increased American participation in Western Hemisphere
American businesses developed markets and production in Latin America, gained political power in region
Expansionism (business in regions) supported by most Americans, imperialism (control of another country) more controversial
Influence of Sea Power
Book by Captain Alfred T. Mahan, "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History" (1890) popularized idea of the New Navy
Successful foreign trade relied on access to foreign ports, colonies, and strong navy
After upgrading ships, U.S. turned attention to foreign acquisitions
U.S. Interest in Hawaii
Search for port along trade route to Asia attracted U.S. to Hawaii
American involvement began in 1870s with American sugar producers trading with Hawaiians
Hawaii economy collapsed in 1890s due to U.S. tariffs and dependence on trade with U.S.
White minority overthrew native government, U.S. annexed Hawaii, angering Japan (40% of Hawaii's residents were Japanese descent)
Cuban natives revolted against Spanish control, instigated by U.S. tampering with the Cuban economy
Cuban civil war followed and reported in detail by the Hearst newspaper
The explosion of American warship Maine in Havana harbor led to war with Spain
U.S. drove Spain out of Cuba and Philippines in the Spanish-American War
Spain ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the U.S. in the Treaty of Paris
U.S. claimed it wouldn't annex Cuba through Teller Amendment, but troops stayed and made Cuba include Platt Amendment in its new constitution
Platt Amendment granted U.S. control over Cuba's foreign affairs, U.S. troops eventually left in 1934 during FDR's administration
Control of the Philippines raised the question of annexation or independence
Arguments for annexation: Europe would conquer Philippines, U.S. moral obligation to "Christianize and civilize" Filipinos
Arguments against annexation: promote independence and democracy, U.S. no better than British tyrants they overthrew
Senate voted to annex the Philippines by a close margin, but Filipino nationalists responded with a guerrilla war
U.S. used brutal tactics to subdue the revolt and inflicted casualties on the civilian population
The U.S. granted the Philippines independence in 1946
The question arose as to the legal status of the native population in newly acquired territories, "Does the Constitution follow the flag?"
Supreme Court ruled through Insular Cases that the Constitution didn't follow the flag and Congress could administer each overseas possession as it chose
America hoped to gain entry into Asian markets through McKinley's Open Door Policy
The Populist and Progressive Movements
Populists:
Aggrieved farmers advocating radical reforms
Raised possibility of reform through government
Successes in local and national elections
Encouraged others to seek change through political action
Progressives:
Built on Populism's achievements and adopted some of its goals
Urban, middle-class reformers seeking government's role in reform
Greater success due to more economic and political power
Less intensification of regional and class differences compared to Populists
Roots of Progressivism:
Growing number of associations and organizations
Members were educated and middle class, offended by corruption and urban poverty
Boost from muckrakers' exposés of corporate greed and misconduct
Progressives' Successes:
Both local and national level changes
Campaigned for education and government regulation
New groups for fight against discrimination with mixed success
Women's suffrage movement gave birth to feminist movement
Wisconsin governor Robert La Follette led the way for Progressive state leaders
The Progressive Movement:
Prominent leader: President Theodore Roosevelt
Progressive income taxes to redistribute nation's wealth
Work-class Progressives' victories: work day limitations, minimum wage, child labor laws, housing codes
Adoption of ballot initiative, referendum, and recall election
President Theodore Roosevelt:
Prominent Progressive leader
Republican Party's choice for running mate in 1900 election
Succeeded McKinley after assassination in 1901.
Progressive Era
Progressive Era marked increasing involvement of federal government in daily life
Progressive presidents: Teddy Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson
The Progressive Era resulted in many reforms, including conservation, regulation of monopolies and trusts, and the establishment of federal standards in food and drug industries.
Teddy Roosevelt
Early on, showed liberal tendencies and was the first to use Sherman Antitrust Act against monopolies
Nicknamed "Trustbuster" for his efforts to break up monopolies
Encouraged Congress to pass Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act to protect workers and consumers
Created National Park Service and National Forest Service to conserve natural resources
William Howard Taft
Pursued monopolies even more aggressively than Roosevelt
Known for "dollar diplomacy" - securing favorable relationships with Latin American and East Asian countries by providing monetary loans
Became the only former president to serve on Supreme Court of the US as the 10th Chief Justice (1921-1930)
Split from Roosevelt in the 1912 Republican primary due to opposing policies
Woodrow Wilson
Distinguished himself from Teddy Roosevelt with his policies referred to as New Freedom
Argued that federal government had to assume greater control over business to protect man's freedom
Committed to restoring competition through greater government regulation of the economy and lowering the tariff
Created Federal Trade Commission, enforced Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, and helped create Federal Reserve System
Progressive movement ended after World War I, Spanish Flu outbreak of 1918, and a Red Scare
End of Progressive Era
Achieved many of its goals, which resulted in loss of support from interest groups whose ends were met
Some say the Progressive movement was brought to an end, in part, by its own success
Roosevelt's domestic policy differed from his predecessor, but he concurred with his foreign policy.
Roosevelt was an even more devout imperialist than McKinley, strongarming Cuba into accepting the Platt Amendment which committed Cuba to American control.
The US occupied Cuba for 10 years (1906-1922), causing anti-American sentiments.
Roosevelt's actions in Central America were equally interventionist, building a canal through the Central American isthmus and supporting the revolution in Panama for a better deal.
The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, also known as the Big Stick Policy, was used to justify repeated military intervention in Latin America due to the assertion of a threat to American security.
American foreign policy adhered to the Monroe Doctrine which asserted America's right to intervene in the Western Hemisphere to protect national security.
Woodrow Wilson won the election of 1912 with a policy of neutrality, but it posed immediate problems due to close relationships with England and relatively distant relationship with Germany and Austria-Hungary.
When war broke out in Europe, Wilson declared US policy of neutrality, but it was complicated due to the close relationship with England and their effective blockade.
Germany attempted to counter the blockade with submarines, but the sinking of the Lusitania led to condemnation from the government and public.
Wilson's efforts to stay out of the war and the events that ultimately drew the US into the conflict.
World War I and Government Expansion of Power
Government took control of telephone, telegraph, and rail industries
Created War Industry Board (WIB) to coordinate all aspects of industrial and agricultural production
WIB had mixed success due to being slow and inefficient
Curtailed individual civil liberties during the war
The Espionage Act and Sedition Act
Congress passed the Espionage Act in 1917 and the Sedition Act in 1918 in response to opposition to U.S. involvement in the war
Espionage Act prohibited interference with the war effort or draft through the U.S. mail system
Sedition Act made it illegal to try to prevent the sale of war bonds or speak disparagingly of the government, military, or Constitution
Laws violated the spirit of the First Amendment but were vague, giving the courts great leeway in interpretation
Schenck v. United States
Supreme Court upheld the Espionage Act in 1919 in three separate cases, the most notable being Schenck v. United States
Schenck was arrested and convicted for violating the Espionage Act by printing and mailing leaflets urging men to resist the draft
Supreme Court ruled that freedom of speech and civil liberties could be curtailed if actions posed a “clear and present danger” to others or the nation
Suppression of Unpopular Ideas
Laws soon became useful tools for suppression of anyone who voiced unpopular ideas
Era of increased paranoia due to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and fear of communist takeover
Radical labor unions and leaders branded enemies of the state and incarcerated
New government agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation, created to prevent radical takeover
Business and Labor Union Changes
Business assumed greater power while unions lost power
Strikebreakers and forceful tactics against unions increased under pretext of stamping out radicalism
The Palmer Raids
In early 1920, government raided suspected radical groups around the country in the Palmer Raids
Government abandoned all pretext of respecting civil liberties as agents raided union halls, pool halls, social clubs, and residences
Over 10,000 arrested in over 30 cities, but few weapons or bombs were found
500 immigrants were eventually deported
Committee on Public Information (CPI)
Government helped create frenzied atmosphere through its wartime propaganda arm, the Committee on Public Information (CPI)
CPI messages grew more sensational as the war progressed
Image of Germans as cold-blooded, baby-killing, power-hungry Huns created through lectures, movie theaters, newspapers, and magazines
Americans rejected all things German, changed name of sauerkraut to “liberty cabbage”
Acts of violence against German immigrants and Americans of German descent.
Wartime Opportunities for Women
Change in means of employment
Many women quit domestic work and started in factories
At one point, 20% of factory jobs held by women
End of workplace advances with return of veterans
The Great Migration
Black Southern people left for North for jobs in wartime manufacturing
Over 500,000 Black people left South for work
Many joined army, encouraged by W. E. B. Du Bois for inroad to social equality
Army segregated and assigned Black people mostly to menial labor
Fearful of integration, Black combat units assigned to French command
End of World War I
America's participation tipped balance in Allies' favor
Two years after America's entry, Germans ready to negotiate peace treaty
Wilson's Fourteen Points served as basis for initial negotiations
Called for free trade, reduction of arms, self-determination, end of colonialism, League of Nations
Treaty of Versailles punished Germany, left humiliated and in economic ruin
Created League of Nations, but much of Wilson's plan discarded
Wilson's return home greeted with opposition over League of Nations
Senate debate over Article X curtailed America's independence in foreign affairs
Senate split into Democrats (pro-League), Irreconcilables (opposed), Reservationists (compromise)
Democrats and Irreconcilables defeated treaty with Lodge Reservations
US not signatory of Treaty of Versailles, never joined League of Nations
America retreating into period of isolationism
Wilson attempted to muster popular support, suffered major stroke and treaty failed
Possible Success of League of Nations
Many wonder if League would have prevented World War II had US been a member
After World War I
Brief slump in American economy
Rapid growth from 1922
Electric motor drives prosperity
New industries arise to serve middle class
Pro-Business Republican Administrations
Increased comfort with large successful businesses
Department stores and automobile industry offer convenience and status
Government increasingly pro-business, regulatory agencies assist business instead of regulating
Decreased favor for labor unions, strikes suppressed by federal troops
Supreme Court nullified child labor restrictions and minimum wage law for women
Woodrow Wilson and Race
Outspoken white supremacist
Segregated federal government, wrote admiringly of KKK
Told racist jokes at Cabinet meetings
Presidents Harding, Coolidge, Hoover pursued pro-business policies
Teapot Dome Scandal with corrupt cabinet members
Harding liberal on civil liberty, Coolidge won election on "Coolidge prosperity" and continued conservative economic policies
Decline of Labor Unions
Pro-business atmosphere led to decline in popularity of labor unions
Drop in membership levels throughout decade
Efforts by businesses to woo workers with pension plans, profit sharing, and company events
Referred to as welfare capitalism.
Modern Culture
The automobile was a major consumer product in the 1920s and typified the new spirit of the nation
Henry Ford's assembly line and mass production made cars more affordable, leading to widespread ownership
Automobiles allowed people to move to the suburbs and transformed into a necessity
The impact of cars was tremendous, requiring the development of roadways and traffic enforcement
Radio also changed the nation's culture, with millions of families owning them and gathering to listen
Consumerism was fueled by the rise of household appliances and the advertising industry
Single-earner households pushed more women to enter the workforce, although most still remained in traditional roles
The flapper image emerged as a symbol of the Roaring Twenties and the new freedom for women
Entertainment saw growth in movies, sports, and literature with world-class authors like F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway
Literature reflected disillusionment with the opulence and excess of the 1920s
The Harlem Renaissance was a major cultural development in the largest Black neighborhood in New York City
The Harlem Renaissance was marked by the growth of theaters, cultural clubs, and newspapers
Jazz was popularized and became emblematic of the era, with Louis Armstrong as a major figure
1920s America:
Backlash and Nativism:
Ku Klux Klan grew to over 5 million members
Targeted Blacks, Jews, urbanites, and anyone whose behavior deviated from their narrow code of acceptable Christian behavior
Anti-immigration groups grew in strength
Targeted southern and Eastern European immigrants
Accusations of dangerous subversives intensified with Sacco and Vanzetti trial
US started setting limits and quotas to restrict immigration
Emergency Quota Act of 1924 set immigration quotas based on national origins
Discriminated against southern and Eastern European "new immigrants"
Societal Tensions:
Scopes Monkey Trial
Tennessee law forbade teaching evolution
John Thomas Scopes broke the law
Trial drew national attention with prominent attorneys Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan
Encapsulated debate over sticking with tradition vs. progress
Prohibition:
Banned manufacture, sale, and transport of alcoholic beverages
Roots in reform campaigns of 1830s
Mainstay of women's political agendas
18th Amendment outlawed American liquor industry
Resentment of government intrusion in private matter
Weakened by organized crime in producing and selling liquor
Gangster Era inspired many movies and television series
Prohibition repealed by 21st Amendment in 1933
Republicans nominate Herbert Hoover in 1928
Hoover predicts that poverty would soon be eradicated in America
October 1929 stock market crash triggers the Great Depression
Hoover and advisers underestimated the impact of the crash
Hoover believed the economy was sound, reassured public that only speculators would be hurt
Huge banks and corporations among the speculators, causing bankruptcy and unable to pay employees or guarantee bank deposits
Factors contributing to the Great Depression: Europe's economy due to WWI and reparations, overproduction leading to lay offs and low market value, production outstripping ability to buy, concentration of wealth and power in a few businessmen, government laxity in regulation
Depression had a calamitous effect on millions of Americans: job loss, savings loss, homeless and shantytowns, rural farmers struggled, drought and Dust Bowl, agrarian unrest, Farmers’ Holiday Association
Hoover initially opposed federal relief efforts, but later initiated a few programs and campaigned for works projects
Hawley-Smoot Tariff worsened the economy
Hoover had the Federal Emergency Relief Administration established to bail out large companies and banks
Hoover's most embarrassing moment: army attack on Bonus Expeditionary Force in 1932
Hoover's efforts not enough to secure re-election, defeated by FDR in 1932 election
FDR's interventionist government approach contrasted with Hoover's traditional conservative values.
Franklin D. Roosevelt's inaugural address declared war on the Depression
He asked for the same broad powers that presidents exercise during wars against foreign nations
Most famous line of the speech: "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified fear."
The New Deal was a result of a powerful presidency and public confidence in Roosevelt
The First New Deal took place during the first hundred days of Roosevelt's administration
The Emergency Banking Relief Bill put poorly managed banks under control of Treasury Department and granted government licenses to solvent banks
The Banking Act of 1933 created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to guarantee bank deposits
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) provided payments to farmers in return for cutting production, funded by increased taxes on food processors
Farm Credit Act provided loans to farmers in danger of foreclosure
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) consolidated businesses and coordinated activities to eliminate overproduction
Public Works Administration (PWA) set aside $3 billion to create jobs building roads, sewers, public housing units, etc.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided grants to states for their own PWA-like projects
The government took over the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and expanded its operations for the economic recovery of the region
Roosevelt's response to Great Depression was guided by Keynesian economics
Keynesian economics argued that government should embark on a program of deliberate deficit spending to revive the economy
Keynesian economics was successful during Roosevelt's administration and led to 30 years of economic expansion from 1945 to 1973
Conservatives:
Higher tax rates
Increase in government power over business
Removal of incentive for the poor to lift themselves out of poverty
Borrowing to finance programs, anathema to conservatives
Leftists, like Huey Long:
AAA policy of paying farmers not to grow is immoral
Government policy toward businesses too favorable
Blamed corporate greed for Depression, calling for nationalization of businesses
Huey Long Threat to FDR
Senator and governor of Louisiana
Promoted a plan similar to Social Security, gaining supporters
Assassinated in 1935
Supreme Court Dismantles First New Deal
Invalidated sections of NIRA in the "sick chicken case"
Codes were unconstitutional, executive legislation beyond limits of executive power
FDR argued that crisis of Depression warranted expansion of executive branch
Supreme Court struck down AAA in United States v. Butler
Roosevelt's Court-Packing Scheme
Attempted to increase Supreme Court size from 9 justices to 15
Wanted to pick justices who supported his policies
Rejected by Congress
Second New Deal
Emergency Relief Appropriation Act created WPA (later renamed Works Project Administration)
Generated over 8 million jobs, funded by government
Employed writers, photographers, and artists for public works and local/personal history projects
Summer of 1935 is called Roosevelt's Second Hundred Days
Passed legislation broadening NLRB powers, democratizing unions, punishing anti-union businesses
Created Social Security Administration for retirement benefits for workers, disabled, and families
Increased taxes on wealthy individuals and business profits
New Deal Coalition
Made up of union members, urbanites, underclass, and Black people (previously voted Republican)
Swept FDR back into office in 1936 with landslide victory
Held together until election of Reagan in 1980.
I. Judicial Reorganization Bill:
Proposed allowing Roosevelt to appoint new federal judges
Effort to pack courts with judges sympathetic to New Deal policies
Defeated in Democratic Congress
Intense criticism for trying to seize too much power
Situation worked itself out with retirements and appointment of liberal judges
II. Economic Problems:
1937 recession caused by cuts in government programs and tightened credit supply
Recession lasted for almost three years with increased unemployment rate
Forced Roosevelt to withdraw money from New Deal programs to fund military buildup
III. New Deal:
Debate among historians on whether New Deal worked or not
Arguments for New Deal:
Provided relief and escaped poverty for many people
Reforms in banking, finance, management/union relations
Took bold chances in conservative political climate
Arguments against New Deal:
Unemployment rate remained in double digits
Failed to solve unemployment problem
Too small and short-lived to have significant impact
Didn't benefit all equally, minorities particularly hurt by AAA and public works projects
IV. Accomplishments:
Passed Second Agricultural Adjustment Act and Fair Labor Standards Act
Remade America in banking, finance, management/union relations
Social welfare system stems from New Deal
Took bold chances in conservative political climate
After World War I, American foreign policy focused on promoting peace and independent internationalism.
The Washington Conference was held in 1921-1922 and resulted in a treaty that limited armaments and reaffirmed the Open Door Policy toward China.
In 1928, 62 nations signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which condemned war as a means of foreign policy.
The US tried to adopt a Good Neighbor Policy in Latin America in 1934, but continued to promote American interests through economic coercion and support of pro-American leaders.
The Platt Amendment was repealed during this time.
In Asia, the US had limited influence and was unable to stop Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
The US sold arms to China and called for an arms embargo on Japan when Japan went to war against China in 1937.
The US maintained a high-tariff protectionist policy throughout the 1920s.
The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act allowed the president to reduce tariffs for foreign policy goals.
Most favored nation (MFN) trade status was granted to eligible countries for the lowest tariff rate set by the US.
Isolationist sentiment grew due to the results of World War I and the findings of the Nye Commission.
The Nye Commission revealed unethical activities by American arms manufacturers, leading to the passage of neutrality acts.
Roosevelt poured money into the military and worked to assist the Allies within the limits of the neutrality acts.
By the 1940s, US foreign policy became increasingly less isolationist with the Lend-Lease Act and Roosevelt's efforts to supply the Allies.
Complicated military strategy and outcome of key battles played a significant role in WW2
No need to know much about battles, but important to know about wartime conferences between Allies
Grand Alliance between Soviet Union and West was tenuous
Manhattan Project of 1942 was research and development effort for atomic bombs
Soviet spies infiltrated the project
First meeting of "big three" (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) took place in Tehran in 1943
They planned Normandy invasion (D-Day) and division of defeated Germany into occupation zones
Stalin agreed to enter war against Japan after Hitler's defeat
Allies fought Germans primarily in Soviet Union and Mediterranean until D-Day invasion in France
Soviet Union incurred huge losses and sought to recoup by occupying Eastern Europe
Allies won war of attrition against Germans and accelerated victory in East by dropping atomic bombs on Japan
D-Day on June 6, 1944 was largest amphibious landing
Government acquired more power during WW2 through War Production Board and control over industry and labor
Labor Disputes Act of 1943 allowed government takeover of businesses deemed necessary to national security
Hollywood was enlisted to create propaganda films
Government size more than tripled during war
FDR signed Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, creating first peacetime draft in US history
WW2 affected almost every aspect of daily life and created new opportunities and tensions in American society
More than a million African Americans served in US military during WW2, but lived in segregated units
US army was not desegregated until after the war in 1948
Rosie the Riveter symbolized the millions of women who worked in war-related industrial jobs
Most women were expected to go back to traditional roles after soldiers returned home
Government restricted civil liberties, including internment of Japanese Americans from 1942 to end of war
Over 110,000 Asian Americans were imprisoned without charge based solely on ethnic background
Supreme Court upheld evacuation and internment of Japanese Americans as constitutional
Yalta and Potsdam Conferences
Yalta conference held in February 1945 between Allies (US, UK, USSR) to discuss the fate of postwar Europe
Soviet army occupied parts of Eastern Europe, and Stalin wanted to create a "buffer zone" with "friendly" nations
Allies agreed on a number of issues concerning borders and settlements and to help create the United Nations
Potsdam Conference
Held after the end of the war in Europe to decide on implementing the agreements of Yalta
Harry S. Truman represented the US after Roosevelt's death
Differences between US and USSR growing more pronounced
Allies created the Potsdam Declaration to establish the terms for Japan's surrender (removal of emperor from power)
Outcome of Conferences
USSR given a free hand in Eastern Europe with promise to hold "free and unfettered elections" after the war
Descent of Iron Curtain (division of Eastern and Western Europe) and beginning of Cold War
American-Soviet animosity led to US using atomic bombs against Japan
Fear of Soviet entry into Asian war and display of power, combined with tenacious Japanese resistance, influenced Truman's decision.
Survival of combatants and rebuilding of war-torn countries
Political and economic shape of the new world and formation of new political alliances
The Cold War was a power struggle between the two leading political-economic systems, capitalism and communism
The major powers, United States and Soviet Union, were the two new superpowers, but their ideologies made them enemies.
Truman's Foreign Policy:
Differences between Soviet and American goals became clearer after the war
Truman Doctrine and Containment Policy to prevent spread of communism
Marshall Plan - sent $12 billion to Europe to help rebuild its economy and promote economic growth
Formed NATO with Canada and Western European countries in 1949.
Berlin Crisis in 1948:
Germany was divided into 4 sectors after the war
Berlin was also divided into 4 sectors
The three Western Allies merged their sectors and planned to bring the country into the Western economy
Soviet response - imposed a blockade on Berlin
Truman ordered airlifts to keep the Western portion supplied with food and fuel
The blockade continued for close to a year and was a political liability for the Soviets, who eventually gave it up.
Red Scare and Anti-Communism in America
After World War I, anticommunism swept America during the Red Scare.
Truman ordered investigations of 3 million federal employees in search of "security risks."
Those found to have a potential Achilles’ heel (association with "known communists" or "moral" weaknesses) were dismissed without a hearing.
Alger Hiss, former State Department official, was found guilty of consorting with a communist spy.
Fear of the "enemy within" began to spread.
The Screen Actors Guild attempted to purge its own communists.
Rise of Joseph McCarthy
In 1950, McCarthy claimed to have a list of over 200 known communists working for the State Department.
He led a campaign of innuendo that ruined the lives of thousands of innocent people.
McCarthy held years of hearings with regard to subversion, not just in the government, but in education and the entertainment industry.
Industries created lists of those tainted by these charges, called blacklists.
Eisenhower was worried about McCarthy and refused to speak against him.
Downfall of McCarthy
McCarthy accused the Army of harboring communists and finally chose too powerful a target.
The Army fought back hard, with help from Edward R. Murrow’s television show, and made McCarthy look foolish in the Army-McCarthy hearings.
The public turned its back on McCarthy, and the era of McCarthyism ended.
Public distrust and fear of communism remained.
The End of War and its Effects on the Economy
The end of war led to the end of wartime production (Jeeps, airplanes, guns, bombs, and uniforms)
Businesses started laying off employees, leading to a rise in unemployment levels
People started spending more, causing prices to rise, with an inflation rate of 20% in 1946
The poor and unemployed were hit the hardest
Truman offered New Deal-style solutions but was met with conservatism in American politics
Deals offered by Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, and Harry Truman
Square Deal: Theodore Roosevelt promised to regulate business and restore competition
First New Deal: Franklin Roosevelt focused on immediate public relief and recovery of banks
Second New Deal: Franklin Roosevelt addressed shortcomings of the First New Deal and responded to changing political climate
Fair Deal: Harry Truman extended New Deal vision and provided provisions for WWII veteran reintegration into society (e.g. G.I. Bill)
The Rise of New Conservatism
Antiunionism emerged
Strike in essential industries (coal miners) led to layoffs, tensions rose
Truman seized mines when settlement couldn't be reached, which alienated labor
Threatened to draft railroad strikers, further alienating labor and one of the core constituencies of the Democratic coalition
Civil Rights and Truman's Alienation
Truman pursued a civil rights agenda, but upset many voters (especially in the South)
Convened President's Committee on Civil Rights, issued reports calling for end to segregation and poll taxes, more aggressive enforcement of antilynching laws
Issued executive orders forbidding racial discrimination in federal hiring, desegregating Armed Forces
Advances in civil rights provoked an outbreak of racism in the South
Anger among Core Democratic Constituencies
Labor, consumers, Southerners all upset with Truman
Republicans take control of 80th Congress in 1946 midterm elections
Truman's popularity receives boost from conservative Republican-dominated Congress
Passes anti-labor acts, Taft-Hartley Act restricts labor rights, gives government power to intervene in strikes
Rebukes Truman's efforts to pass health care reform, aid schools, farmers, elderly, disabled, promote civil rights for Black people
Truman's Re-election Victory
Truman trails chief opponent, Thomas Dewey, in election
Makes brilliant political move by recalling the conservative Congress and challenging them to enact their platform
Congress meets for two weeks and does not pass significant legislation
Truman goes on grueling public appearance campaign deriding the "do-nothing" 80th Congress
Wins re-election, coattails carry Democratic majority into Congress
Introduction:
The Korean War began in June of 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea.
The U.S. took swift countermeasures, intending to repel the invasion but later trying to reunify Korea.
U.S. troops attacked North Korea under the umbrella of the United Nations, which led to China's entry into the war.
U.S. Involvement:
Truman's Early Decisions: Truman decided to attempt a reunification of Korea after early military successes.
China's Entry: China entered the war, pushing American and South Korean troops back to near the original border.
MacArthur's Recommendation: U.S. commander Douglas MacArthur recommended an all-out confrontation with China.
Truman's Decision: Truman decided against MacArthur's recommendation, thinking a war with China would be imprudent.
MacArthur's Firing: MacArthur started criticizing the president publicly, which led to his firing for insubordination.
Political Impact:
MacArthur's Popularity: MacArthur was very popular in the U.S., and his firing hurt Truman politically.
Peace Talks: Peace talks began soon after, but the war dragged on for two more years.
1952 Presidential Election: The Republicans chose Dwight D. Eisenhower, a war hero, in the 1952 presidential election.
Truman's Unpopularity: Truman was unpopular, and America was ready for a change.
Eisenhower's Victory: Eisenhower easily beat Democratic challenger Adlai Stevenson.
Societal Values:
Consensus of values across much of America
Americans believed in the superiority of their country
Communism was perceived as evil and a threat to be stopped
The good life was defined as having a decent job, a suburban home, and access to modern conveniences (consumerism)
G.I. Bill of Rights:
Serviceman's Readjustment Act enacted in 1944
Provided allowance for educational and living expenses for returning soldiers and veterans
Helped many Americans achieve the American dream
Stimulated postwar economic growth by providing low-cost loans for homes, farms, or small businesses
Civil Rights Movement:
Built on the advances of the 1940s
Met violent resistance
Economic Recessions:
Era plagued by frequent economic recessions
Spiritual Unrest:
Emergence of Beat poetry and novels (e.g. "Howl," On the Road)
Teen movies (e.g. Blackboard Jungle, The Wild One, Rebel Without a Cause)
Rock 'n' Roll music (Elvis Presley, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry)
Eisenhower took office with intentions of imposing conservative values on the expanding federal government
Goals included balancing the budget, reducing federal spending and easing business regulation
Military buildup for the Cold War prevented major cuts to the military budget
Popularity of New Deal programs and circumstances required increasing Social Security recipients and benefits
Started development of the Interstate Highway System, which promoted tourism and suburban development at high cost
Only balanced the federal budget three times in eight years
Domestic issues involving minorities:
Eisenhower's "termination" policy aimed to liquidate reservations and end federal support for Native Americans
Policy failed and was stopped in the 60s, leading to depletion and impoverishment of some tribes
Civil rights movement had landmark events:
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"
Eisenhower personally disapproved of segregation but opposed rapid change, resulting in southern resistance
Supported the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960, strengthening voting rights and punishments for crimes against Blacks
Montgomery bus boycott (1955) led to Martin Luther King Jr's national prominence and the integration of city buses
King encouraged peaceful protests, leading to the 1960 Greensboro sit-in movement against segregation
Eisenhower Administration Cold War Policy
Policy of Containment:
Rebranded as "Liberation" to sound more intimidating
Threat of freeing Eastern Europe from Soviet control
Massive Retaliation:
Threat of nuclear attack if Soviets dared to challenge US
Deterrence:
Soviet fear of massive retaliation prevents challenges to US
Leads to arms race
Knowledge of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) prevents deployment of nuclear weapons
Brinksmanship:
Escalation of confrontations with Soviet Union towards war
Domino Theory:
Spread of communism had to be checked in Southeast Asia
South Vietnam falling to communism would lead to quick fall of surrounding nations
Tensions During the Decade
Cold War tensions remained high throughout the decade
Death of Joseph Stalin:
Eisenhower hoped for improvement in American-Soviet relations
Initially, new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev offered hope
Soviet Client States:
Khrushchev's "peaceful coexistence" message taken as sign of weakness
Rebellions in Poland and Hungary
Soviet crushing of uprisings returns US-Soviet relations to Stalin Era
Heightened Anxieties:
Soviet advancements in nuclear arms and space flight
US creates and funds NASA in response to Soviet advancements
World War II and the Third World
Europe's overseas empires broke up after World War II
Numerous countries in Africa, Asia, and South America gained independence from European domination and became known as the Third World
America and the Soviet Union sought to bring Third World countries into their sphere of influence
Both superpowers prized Third World countries with strategic locations and military bases
Nationalism swept through most Third World nations, making it difficult for the superpowers to make major inroads
Third World nations regarded both America and the Soviet Union with suspicion and distrust
America's Influence in the Third World
America attempted to expand its influence through foreign aid (e.g. Aswan Dam in Egypt)
Nationalist leader Gamal Nasser suspected Western motives and turned to the Soviet Union for aid
President Eisenhower played a role in the Suez Canal crisis and pressured Britain and France to withdraw
CIA used covert operations (disinformation, bribing politicians, influencing local business and politics) to increase American influence abroad
CIA helped overthrow anti-American governments in Iran and Guatemala and tried (unsuccessfully) to assassinate Fidel Castro in Cuba
Election of 1960
Richard Nixon (Republican) vs John F. Kennedy (Democrat)
Both campaigned against communist menace and each other
Kennedy won due to youth, good looks, choice of Lyndon Johnson as running mate, and television debate performance
Nixon's campaign hurt by vice presidency and lack of endorsement from Eisenhower
Close election, with possible voter fraud
Eisenhower's Farewell Address
Warning against the military-industrial complex
Combination of military and profitable arms industries created a powerful alliance
Interests of this alliance did not align with general public
Later seen as identification of those responsible for escalation of Vietnam War
1960s started with hope and excitement, "Camelot" era
Kennedy and his administration were seen as young, ambitious, and intellectual
Dubbed as "the best and the brightest" by the press
Kennedy's youth, good looks, and wit earned him the adoration of millions
New Frontier program promised to conquer poverty, racism, and other contemporary issues
By 1969, America was bitterly divided
Conflicts centered around the Vietnam War and Black people's struggle for civil rights
Kennedy perceived Soviet Union and communism as the major threats to US security
Every major foreign policy issue related to Cold War concerns
Two major events heightened American-Soviet tensions: Cuba and Berlin Wall
Kennedy inherited the Cuban issue and attempted to solve it with the ill-fated Bay of Pigs invasion
Invasion failed and led to diminished America's stature with allies
Berlin Wall symbolized the repressive nature of communism and divide between democratic West and communist East
JFK's "Ich bin ein Berliner" statement was not a grammatical error
Cuban missile crisis in 1962 brought US and Soviet Union closest to military confrontation
Kennedy imposed naval quarantine on Cuba to prevent further weapons shipments and demanded Soviet withdrawal
Brinkmanship policy resulted in peaceful resolution of the crisis
President John F. Kennedy: The New Frontier and Civil Rights
Kennedy's Presidency:
Began with a promise of conquering a New Frontier
Pushed through legislation to improve the country's welfare
Increased unemployment benefits
Expanded Social Security
Raised minimum wage
Aided distressed farmers
Civil Rights Agenda:
Varied results
Supported women's rights
Established presidential commission to remove obstacles to women's participation in society
Congress passed the Equal Pay Act (1963) requiring equal pay for equal work
Employers still found ways to bypass the law
Embraced Black civil rights late in his presidency
Enforced desegregation at the University of Alabama and the University of Mississippi
Asked Congress to outlaw segregation in all public facilities
Assassination in November 1963
JFK's Actions on Civil Rights:
Ordered Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to make public transportation integrated
Active period for the civil rights movement
Nongovernmental organizations mobilized to build on previous decade's gains
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) staged sit-ins and boycotts
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized the Freedom Riders
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) did grassroots work for voter registration and antisegregationist activism
Civil rights groups faced resistance
Mississippi's NAACP director, Medgar Evers, was shot to death by an anti-integrationist
Demonstrators in Montgomery, Alabama, were assaulted by police and fire department using attack dogs and fire hoses
News reports of these events helped bolster the movement
JFK's assassination also had an impact on the civil rights movement
President Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights Movement
Unlike Kennedy, Johnson took immediate action to demonstrate his commitment to the civil rights movement
Lobbied for the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, or gender
Most comprehensive piece of civil rights legislation in U.S. history
Prohibited discrimination in employment and public facilities
Established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce employment clause
Signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965
Cracked down on states denying Black people the right to vote
Signed another civil rights act banning discrimination in housing
Extended voting rights to Native Americans living under tribal governments
Believed social injustice stemmed from social inequality and advocated for civil rights in employment
Lobbied for and won the Economic Opportunity Act
Appropriated nearly $1 billion for poverty relief
Expanded antipoverty program after election victory
Project Head Start
Upward Bound
Job Corps
Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA)
Legal Services for the Poor
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
Increased federal aid to low-income renters
Built more federal housing projects
Established Medicare and Medicaid
Great Society - sweeping change to U.S. government since the New Deal
Increased tax revenues from expanding economy funded the whole package
Objections to increase in government activity
Extension of civil rights met with bigoted opposition, especially in the South
Huge coalition that gave Johnson victory and mandate for change started to fall apart due to successes and bitter national debate over Vietnam
Civil Rights Movement in the Early 1960s
Legislative Successes:
Passed under Johnson’s Great Society program
Provided government support
Victories in the Courts:
Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren
Warren Court was extremely liberal
Worked to enforce voting rights for Black people
Forced states to redraw congressional districts for greater minority representation
Prohibited school prayer
Protected the right to privacy
Rulings on rights of the accused: Gideon v. Wainwright, Miranda v. Arizona
Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the Constitution:
Ratified on January 23, 1964
Banned the use of the poll tax in all elections
Resistance to Change:
Strong opposition from state governments, police, and white citizens
Examples of police violence: Selma, Birmingham
Racists bombed Black churches and homes of civil rights activists
Mississippi: three civil rights workers murdered by local police department
Growing Outrage in the Black Community:
Activists abandon Martin Luther King's nonviolent strategy
Malcolm X advocates "by any means necessary"
SNCC and CORE expel white members and advocate Black Power
Black Panthers at forefront of movement
Fragmentation of the Movement:
1968: King assassinated
Some continue to advocate integration and peaceful change
Others argue for empowerment through segregation and aggression
Young whites, particularly college students, challenged the status quo of middle-class life in the 1960s
The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was formed in 1962 with leftist political agenda
New Left ideals included elimination of poverty and racism, and end to Cold War politics
The Free Speech movement was formed at the University of California, Berkeley in 1964
The Beat Movement started in the 1950s and challenged conservatism with works promoting bohemian lifestyles, drug use and non-traditional art
The New Left groups were male-dominated and insensitive to women's rights
Betty Friedan's book "The Feminine Mystique" challenged assumptions about women's place in society and restarted the women's movement
National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed in 1966 to fight for legislative changes, including the Equal Rights Amendment
The modern movement for gay rights began in the 1960s, with the first Gay Pride parades
Feminists fought against discrimination in hiring, pay, college admissions, and financial aid, and control of reproductive rights
The Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade (1973) enabled women to obtain abortions in all 50 states within the first trimester
The Supreme Court established a constitutional right to privacy in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Mario Savio's speech on December 3, 1964, spoke against "the operation of the machine"
Rebellion against "the establishment" also took the form of nonconformity, typified by the counterculture of the hippies
Counterculture of the hippies included long hair, tie-dyed shirts, ripped jeans, drug use, communal living, and "free love"
Environmental issues rose to prominence with the publication of Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring"
Legislators responded to environmental concerns with the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970
U.S. Policy on Communism
Asserted right to intervene anywhere to stop spread of communism and protect American interests
Origins of U.S. Involvement in Vietnam
Vietnam was French colony until World War II
Exported resources for French consumption
Nationalist Vietnamese resistance (Vietminh) led by Ho Chi Minh
Ho asked Woodrow Wilson for help in expelling French, but was ignored
Japan invaded and ended French control, but U.S. did not recognize Vietnamese independence or Ho's government
U.S. recognized Bao Dai's government installed by French in South
Vietnam fought war for independence against French (1946-1954)
U.S. financed French war effort in Indochina (80%)
Geneva Accords (1954) divided Vietnam at 17th parallel, temporarily
U.S. sabotaged peace agreement by forming alliance with Ngo Dinh Diem and sabotaging elections
Formed Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) for South Vietnam's defense
Downward Spiral of the Situation
Diem was vicious leader, imprisoning political enemies, closing newspapers, and attracting Vietcong
U.S. continued to support Diem and South Vietnam economically
Kennedy increased involvement by sending in military advisors
CIA staged a coup to overthrow Diem's government in 1963
Diem and his brother killed during coup
Kennedy appalled by outcome, assassinated a few weeks later
Johnson took control of America's war efforts.
Johnson Administration
Opportunity to withdraw American forces, but Kennedy's advisers convinced Johnson to remain committed to total victory
Supported second coup in South Vietnam; US not selective about who ran country as long as it wasn't Communist
US Army started bombing Laos (North Vietnamese weapons shipment)
Reports of North Vietnamese firing on American destroyer ships in Gulf of Tonkin (not confirmed)
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed, allowed president to take necessary measures to protect American interests
First ground troops arrived in early 1965
Flooded region with American troops, authorized massive bombing raids into North Vietnam (Operation Rolling Thunder)
Chemical agents like Agent Orange and Napalm used in bombing
US took over war effort from South Vietnamese, resulting in Americanization of the war
As the war ground on, opposition to the war grew, protests increased, and young men either ignored draft or fled to avoid service
Opposition to the War
Johnson's advisers continued to assure him war was winnable until the North Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive in January 1968
Tet Offensive was a major turning point in the war, North Vietnamese and Vietcong nearly captured American embassy in Saigon
Tet Offensive made the American public believe they were being lied to and the war was not winnable
The My Lai Massacre occurred in 1968, US soldiers abused, tortured, and murdered innocent civilians
When story of massacre came to light in 1969, public was outraged, protests against the war grew angrier and more frequent
Johnson's Presidential Race Withdrawal
Johnson's association with the Vietnam War turned many Americans and people within his own party against him
Renomination would not have been easy, with challenges from McCarthy and Kennedy
Withdrawal opened the field to Vice President Hubert Humphrey
Civil Unrest After King Assassination
Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. sparked civil unrest and looting
Police ordered to shoot arsonists in Chicago, where Democratic convention would be held
King's assassination heightened tension surrounding race relations
Kerner Commission report stated that nation was moving toward two separate, unequal societies
Robert Kennedy Assassination
Robert Kennedy, front-runner for Democratic nomination, assassinated
Kennedy represented hope for many Americans as an advocate for the poor and critic of Vietnam War
Two assassinations convinced many that peaceful change from within political system was impossible
Democratic Convention Demonstrations
Disenchanted young Americans demonstrated against government policy at the Democratic Convention
Police ordered to break up crowds with tear gas, billy clubs, and rifles
Images of police clubbing citizens reached millions, reminiscent of police states America fought against
Convention chose pro-war Humphrey over antiwar McCarthy and refused to condemn war effort, alienating left-wing constituency
Republican and Third-Party Nominations
Republicans handed nomination to former Vice President Richard Nixon at peaceful convention
Alabama governor George Wallace ran segregationist third-party campaign, popular in the South
Wallace siphoning Humphrey's potential support in the South
Humphrey denounced Vietnam War late in campaign, but it was too little, too late
Election Result
One of the closest elections in history
Richard Nixon elected president
1960s & 1970s in America
Rollicking party filled with free love, new social ideas, and worthy political causes for young people.
Not everyone embraced the changes of the 1960s
Conservative resurgence began in the 1970s at grassroots level
Focus on single issues: ending abortion, criticizing affirmative action, emphasizing traditional gender roles and nuclear family
Older people suspicious of young questioning values of parents/grandparents
Religious people distrusted rejection of traditional morals and beliefs
Southern segregationists resisted civil rights movement
Some Americans tired of marches and protests, wanted return to peaceful way of life
Opposition to the Changes of the 1960s
Dismayed with civil rights movement, counterculture, and feminism
Alarmed by rising cost of social welfare programs created by New Deal and Johnson's Great Society
Phyllis Schlafly
Notable leader in Conservative reaction to the changes of the 1960s
Most well known for lobbying against the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution
ERA passed Congress, but never fully ratified due to efforts to quell it by Schlafly and supporters
Opposition to the ERA
Could lead to conscription of women into war, negatively affect women in divorce cases, allow men entry to women-only colleges and clubs
Influenced the opinions of many Americans, ERA was never fully ratified
Richard Nixon
Sought to appeal to Americans who did not fully embrace cultural and political changes of the 1960s and 1970s
Conservatives voted for Nixon in large numbers, hoping he would reverse trend of encroaching federal power
Some Southern Democrats voted for Nixon, distrusted newer liberal social policies of their party
Nixon Administration and Vietnam War
Promised to end American involvement in Vietnam through "Vietnamization"
Began withdrawing troops but increased air strikes
Believed in winning the war and ordered bombing raids and troops into Cambodia
American involvement lasted until 1973, peace treaty negotiated with North Vietnam
Outcome of the War
Negotiated peace crumbled, Saigon fell in 1975 and Vietnam united under communism
War Powers Resolution passed in 1973 to prevent future presidents from undeclared wars
Success in Foreign Policy
Increased trade with USSR and negotiated arms treaties
Improved relations with China through secret negotiations and opening trade
Used friendship with China as leverage against USSR
Contributions to Foreign Policy Vocabulary
Détente: policy of "openness" and cooperation among countries
Brief period of relaxed tensions between superpowers
Détente ended with Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
Nixon Doctrine: United States would withdraw from overseas commitments, rely on local government alliances to check communism.
Economic Woes
Period of stagflation (recession-inflation)
Nixon tried to combat with interventionist measures (price-and-wage freeze, increased federal spending)
Efforts failed to produce intended results
Political Tensions
Divided society between haves and have-nots, conservatives and progressives
Political rhetoric painted opposition as enemies of the "American way"
Confrontations on college campuses heightened tensions (Kent State University, Jackson State University)
Urban crime levels rose
1972 Election
Nixon won re-election in a landslide victory
Both houses of Congress remained under Democratic control
Indication of mixed feelings towards political leaders
Pentagon Papers
Top-secret government study of US involvement in Vietnam from World War II to 1968
Published by two major newspapers in the summer of 1971
Documents revealed numerous military miscalculations and lies told to the public
Nixon fought to prevent publication, concerned about effect on secret negotiations with North Vietnam, USSR, and China
Nixon lost the fight and increased his paranoia
The Plumbers
Created by Nixon to prevent leaks of classified documents
Undertook disgraceful projects such as burglarizing a psychiatrist's office
Sabotaged Democratic campaigns and botched a burglary of Democratic headquarters in Watergate Hotel
Watergate Scandal
White House effort to cover up the Watergate burglary
Senate hearing began in early 1973 and lasted for 1.5 years
Close advisers resigned, tried and convicted of felonies
Nixon secretly recorded all conversations in the White House
Legal battle over tapes lasted a year, with Supreme Court ordering Nixon to turn them over
Tapes revealed unsavory aspects of Nixon's character
Nixon resigned in August 1974 instead of facing impeachment proceedings
Vice President Gerald Ford took office and granted Nixon a presidential pardon
People
Henry Kissinger: Secretary of State under Nixon
Daniel Ellsberg: Government official who turned the Pentagon Papers over to the press
Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein: Investigative journalists for The Washington Post
Gerald Ford: Vice President and later President who granted Nixon a presidential pardon
President Gerald Ford
Became president after Nixon resigned
Replaced first vice president Spiro Agnew who resigned due to corruption charges
Selected Nelson Rockefeller as his Vice President
First time neither President nor Vice President elected by public
Pardon of Nixon
Brought Watergate era to a close
Cost Ford politically
Raised suspicions of a deal with Nixon
Economic Challenges
Weak economy
Oil embargo by Arab nations (OPEC) causing fuel price hikes
Inflation and increasing unemployment rate
Damaged credibility due to media, especially parodies by Chevy Chase on Saturday Night Live
Defeat in 1976 Election
Defeated by Democrat Jimmy Carter
Economic Problems during Jimmy Carter's Presidency
Weakening economy inherited by Carter
Inflation exceeded 10%
Interest rates approached 20%
Slow economic growth combined with inflation worsened stagflation
Failed to balance the federal budget
Increased cost of OPEC petroleum caused many economic problems
Efforts to Address Economic Problems
Increased funding for research into alternative sources of power
Created the Department of Energy to oversee these efforts
Many saw nuclear power as a solution to the energy crisis
Fears about nuclear power reinforced after failure of Three Mile Island
Foreign Policy Accomplishments
Brokered peace agreement between Israel and Egypt
Concluded arms agreement with the USSR
Foreign Policy Setbacks
Failed to force USSR withdrawal from Afghanistan
Flip-flopped in Nicaragua
Worst crisis was the Iran Hostage Crisis
Promotion of Human Rights
Made promotion of human rights a cornerstone of foreign policy
Negotiated treaty between US and Panama
Ratified the treaty in the Senate
Retirement and Legacy
Spent retirement working with organizations like Habitat for Humanity.
Late 1970s in America:
Many Americans grew tired of conflicts from previous decade
Uncomfortable with growing cynicism towards political leaders
Jimmy Carter's "crisis of confidence" speech (referred to as "malaise speech") disturbed many Americans
Ronald Reagan:
Saw nation was ready for change
1980 presidential campaign: presented himself as Washington "outsider" & Carter's opposite
Emphasized positive aspects of America vs. Carter blaming American self-indulgence and consumerism
Many voted for Reagan because of his "can-do" attitude, regardless of politics
1980 Election:
Reagan won by landslide
John Anderson's third-party candidacy attracted "protest vote" that might have gone to Carter
Ronald Reagan's Economic Policies:
Applied theory of supply-side economics
Believed reducing corporate taxes would lead to greater profits, job creation, and wealth trickle down
Large-scale deregulation in banking, industry, and environment
Across-the-board tax cut for all Americans
Effects of Reagan's Policies:
Little effect initially, country continued in recession for two years
Results mixed: inflation subsided, but criticism that rich getting richer and poor getting poorer
Rich used money saved on taxes to buy luxury items, rather than reinvesting in economy as suggested by supply-side economics
Ronald Reagan Administration
New Federalism Plan
Shift power from national government to states
States take complete responsibility for welfare, food stamps, and other social welfare programs
National government would assume entire cost of Medicaid
Goal was never accomplished
States feared increase in cost of state government
Military Spending Increase
Funded research into space-based missile shield system (Strategic Defense Initiative or SDI)
Escalated arms race with USSR
Historians debate contribution to end of Cold War
Increased Deficit
Tax cuts, increased military spending, and failure of New Federalism led to increase in federal budget deficit
Government spending increased, government revenues shrank
Government had to borrow money
Congress blamed deficit on tax cuts
Reagan blamed Congress for refusing to decrease funding for social welfare programs
Federal deficit reached record heights during Reagan administration
Foreign Policy Under Reagan
Ending the Cold War
Supported repressive regimes and right-wing insurgents
U.S. military led international invasion of Grenada
Priority: support for Contras in Nicaragua
Contras known for torturing and murdering civilians
Congress cut off aid, Reagan administration funded through other channels (Iran-Contra affair)
Constitutional crisis, debate over power of the purse and checks and balances
Marines sent to Lebanon as part of UN peacekeeping force
Suicide bomb killed 240 servicemen
Eventual pullout of troops
U.S.-Soviet Relations
Reagan's hard-line anticommunism initially led to deterioration in relations
Rhetorical war and escalated arms race
Adversaries eventually brought to bargaining table due to high cost
Gorbachev rose to power in Soviet Union
Economic policy of perestroika, social reforms of glasnost
Loosened Soviet control of Eastern Europe, increased personal liberties, allowed free-market commerce
Reagan and Gorbachev negotiated withdrawal of nuclear warheads from Europe
George Bush defeats Michael Dukakis
Bush calls for "kinder, gentler nation"
"Read my lips: No new taxes"
Progressive liberalism destroyed
"Liberalism" becomes "L word"
Feminism becomes "F word"
Conventional wisdom holds Americans returned to traditional values
Moral majority appeared to have spoken
End of Cold War
Berlin Wall dismantled, Soviet Union breakup
Bush sets course for US foreign policy into 21st century
Persian Gulf War
Saddam Hussein invades Kuwait
Washington reacts immediately
Bush builds consensus in Congress and assembles international coalition
Operation Desert Storm - massive air strikes against Iraqi targets
War ends quickly, few American casualties
Iraq required to submit to UN inspectors for WMD and chemical warfare production
Saddam Hussein remains in power
U.S. foreign policy focus on political stability in Middle East and human rights
Immigration has significantly affected the shape and tenor of American society
From the 1970s to today, the fastest-growing ethnic minorities are Hispanics and Asians
Hispanics now outnumber African Americans as the largest minority in the US
Growth of Asians and Hispanics fueled by immigration
The Immigration Act of 1965 contributed to the increase of immigration by relaxing restrictions on non-European immigration
Hispanics: Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua
Asians: Philippines, China, South Korea, India
Settled mostly in California, Texas, Florida, Southwest
Reasons for Immigration
Reuniting families
Employment of skilled workers (scientists) and political refugees
Employment of Cuban and Southeast Asian refugees from Fidel Castro’s revolution and the Vietnam War
Statistics
Number of foreign-born people living in the US went from 10 million to 31 million from 1970 to 2000
51% of foreign-born people were from Latin America, 27% from Asia
Impact on American Society
Heated debates on immigration policy, bilingual education, affirmative action
Discussions centered on illegal immigration, impact on the economy, reshaping society by new cultures, attitudes, and ideas
Tensions have led to measures to curb illegal immigration, abolish bilingual education, allow low-skilled and high-skilled workers on a temporary basis
The Simpson-Mazzoli Act in 1986 outlawed the employment of illegal immigrants and granted legal status to some illegal aliens
Guest worker programs like the Bracero program (1942-1964) aimed to curb illegal immigration by offering temporary employment to migrant farm workers
Unresolved Problems
Issues persist with illegal immigration
Guest worker programs face pressure to end from organized labor frustrated at decrease in wages
Demographic Changes in the US
Major demographic changes underway in the US
New waves of immigration leading to ethnic enclaves
Examples: Little Italy, Chinatown, Little Havana, Little Saigon
Increase in multilingual services and media catering to specific ethnic groups
Specifically, Hispanics and Asians
Political parties targeting Hispanics for potential political influence
Impact of Demographic Changes
Impact will be felt for generations to come
Ethnic Enclaves in the US
Little Italy in New York City
Chinatown in San Francisco
Little Havana in Miami, Florida
Little Saigon in Orange County, California
Services Catering to Ethnic Groups
Multilingual services
Media catering to Hispanics and Asians
William Jefferson Clinton was the 42nd President of the United States and the first Democrat to be elected after Jimmy Carter.
During his two terms, significant changes occurred in the way Americans do business due to the impact of globalization and advancements in digital technology.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was signed into law by Clinton in 1993, which aimed to eliminate trade barriers among the United States, Mexico, and Canada.
The 1994 Congressional Election saw the Republicans take back control of Congress, but their power was limited by Clinton's executive power.
The Clinton-Lewinsky scandal resulted in Clinton's impeachment, but he was acquitted by the Senate and remained in office to finish his second term.
Clinton's foreign policy aimed to protect human rights around the world, although he faced criticism for defending capitalism over democracy and turning a blind eye to human rights violations in China.
In 1999, Clinton supported a NATO bombing campaign in the former Yugoslavia against Slobodan Milosevic, who was eventually tried and convicted for crimes against humanity.
Other events that took place during Clinton's presidency include his "Don't ask, don't tell" policy for gays in the military, appointments of Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the Supreme Court, and the passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996.
A candidate must win a majority of electoral votes to win the presidency according to the Constitution
"Winner-take-all" system in most states
Possibility of winning popular vote nationwide but losing the presidency
Mishaps with voting procedure in Florida
Al Gore challenged the results
Supreme Court prevented a formal recount of the vote
George W. Bush elected
George W. Bush Administration
Rise in neoconservatism
Sharp opposition to paleoconservatism
Spread democracy and put American corporate interests first through military actions abroad
Global trade and open immigration seen as net positive
Criticized by both staunch liberals and paleoconservatives
Staunch liberals: excessive corporate power and global imperialism
Traditional conservatives: cost of military adventures, loss of domestic jobs, and unrestricted immigration
Loss of faith in the ability of the federal government to solve social and economic problems
Key Players
George W. Bush
Al Gore
John Quincy Adams
Samuel J. Tilden
Rutherford B. Hayes
Dick Cheney
Donald Rumsfeld
Paul Wolfowitz
Patrick J. Buchanan
Voting Rights Act and Amendment Ban Measures
Voting rights for African Americans improved dramatically
Increase from 20% registered to vote in 1960 to 62% by 1971
Elected Officials
African American mayors elected in cities in the 80s
Virginia elects first African American governor in 1990
First African American governor: P.B.S. Pinchback (LA, 15 days in 1872)
African American Representation in Congress
Shirley Chisholm was first African American woman elected to Congress in 1968
First African American to run for president: Shirley Chisholm (1972)
Jesse Jackson ran for Democratic nomination in 1984 and 1988
In 2000, 1,540 African American legislators (10% of total)
Powerful African American Political Figures
Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice: Secretaries of State under George W. Bush
Thurgood Marshall appointed to Supreme Court by Lyndon Johnson in 1960s
Historic Election: Barack Obama as President
Elected in 2008 as first African American president of the United States
Urban Migration and Trends in the 1950s and 1960s
People moved to cities for employment and cheaper housing
African Americans moved to northern and western cities, like during WWI and II
Other minorities, including Latin American immigrants, drawn to cities for similar reasons
Urban problems like overcrowding, high crime, inadequate housing and commercial areas
White Flight in the 1970s and 1980s
Trend of mostly white, middle-class Americans leaving cities for suburbs
Attracted by open spaces, shopping malls, and better-funded schools
Businesses and industries followed, leading to insufficient funds for cities
Poor people and racial minorities remained in cities
Urban Riots and Racial Tensions
Televised urban riots in the 1960s heightened racial tensions (LA, Chicago, NY after MLK Jr. assassination)
Worst urban riot occurred in 1992 in South Central LA after acquittal of white police officers in beating of Rodney King
Tensions between urban and suburban areas highlighted racial and class animosity
Forced busing of students in 1974-1975 resulted in violence in South Boston
Contemporary Urban Trends
Both violent crime and property crime have plunged since early 1990s
Crime reached lowest level in 40 years in 2010
Drop in crime even more pronounced in large urban areas
Affluent young professionals have returned to city centers
Debate on Crime Reduction Causes
Active debate over what caused drop in crime
One theory credits falling levels of lead in environment due to legislation in early 1970s
Lead poisoning linked to criminal activity
Revitalization of American Cities
Dramatic drop in crime has led to revitalization of American cities over past 20 years
Foreign Policy Shift after 9/11
9/11 Attacks
Al Qaeda (Osama bin Laden) attacks World Trade Center and Pentagon
Fourth plane crashes in Pennsylvania
Almost 3,000 civilian casualties
Response to 9/11
Support from NATO allies for attack on Taliban government in Afghanistan
Removal of Taliban and restoration of democracy in Afghanistan
Invasion of Iraq
Allegations of Saddam Hussein's involvement in 9/11
Human rights violations and rumors of weapons of mass destruction
Quick seizure of Baghdad and power vacuum
Establishment of provisional government
Prolonged American occupation due to tensions between political and religious factions
Evangelical Christians in Politics
Right-wing Evangelical Christians were instrumental in energizing conservatives during the 1970s and 1980s
Evangelicalism became increasingly prominent in political life from the 1970s through the 1990s
Fundamentalist sects emphasized a “born-again” religious experience and strict standards of moral behavior from the Bible
Fundamentalists denounced moral relativism of liberals and believed in a literal interpretation of the Bible
Evangelical groups became increasingly political
Key Figures in the New Right
Conservative Evangelicals and fundamentalists such as Billy Graham, Jerry Falwell, and Pat Robertson helped to mobilize like-minded citizens to support the Republican Party
The strength of the New Right was evident in the key role it played in electing Ronald Reagan in 1980 and recapturing control of Congress under Bill Clinton in 1994
Evangelical Support for Republicans
Evangelical Christians continued to support Republicans with the election and re-election of George W. Bush
Increased access to digital technology like personal computers and cellular phones
Increased data storage in new devices
Exponential increase in the use of technology for personal and business purposes
Dot-Com Bubble
Speculation on the value of internet-based companies in the late 1990s
Created first wave of Internet millionaires
Bubble burst by 2001
Employment Changes in the US
Decreased manufacturing jobs (by a third) from 1990 to 2010
Replaced by retail jobs around the turn of the century
2008-2009 recession reduced retail employment
Many Americans found new work in the booming healthcare industry
Unions faced decline throughout the second half of the 20th century, particularly in its final three decades
Factors contributing to decline:
The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 restricted the ability to strike and preferential hiring of union members
Union busting, exemplified by President Reagan's firing of 3,000 striking air traffic controllers in 1981
Generational divide, with younger generations not experiencing the struggles and benefits of unions
Effects of Decline
Income inequality has grown, with consolidation of wealth in the upper echelon of American earners
Stagnation of wages, due to decrease in collective bargaining power
Union membership decreased from 34% in 1979 to 10% in 2010
Background: signed by President Roosevelt in 1933, response to bank instability leading up to Great Depression
Provisions: banks forced to choose between commercial or investment operations, prohibited from participating in both
Glass-Steagall repealed: Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 did away with provisions
Consequences: Critics argue that repeal of Glass-Steagall contributed to the 2008 recession, caused by banks offering speculative home loans
Key Players: Joseph Stiglitz, among economists, is critical of the repeal of Glass-Steagall.
Women's Role in Professional Settings
Increased role in 21st century
Glass ceiling remains a concern
Average age for first marriage increased, women prioritizing careers
2008 recession affected jobs held by men more
Women as primary breadwinner for families
Increase in women elected to political office
Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign in 2016
Geraldine Ferraro in 1984
Sarah Palin in 2008
Historic levels of women elected to Congress
Changes in Family Structures
Decrease in two-parent households (87% in 1960 to 69% today)
Increase in one-parent households (9% in 1960 to 26% today)
Elections of Barack Obama and Donald Trump
unlikely to be tested on these elections
Financial Crash of 2008
Bush and Obama administrations responded by providing financial assistance to major banks (banker bailout)
Affordable Care Act (Obamacare)
most important piece of legislation under Obama's tenure
aimed to regulate the medical industry and provide subsidies to uninsured Americans
2016 Election
marked by ideological divisions within the Republican Party and a rivalry between Trump and Clinton
Trump won the Electoral College, Clinton won the national popular vote
emergence of a new populism of skepticism for established institutions and optimism for political outsiders
Trump Presidency
marked by increased division between Democrats and Republicans
claims of "fake media" and partisan politics
2020 Election
Joe Biden vs. incumbent Trump
greatest population turnout in U.S. history
driven by political polarization and economic collapse (COVID-19 pandemic)
Impact on U.S. History
long-term social and political implications of the Trump administration and pandemic remain unclear.