Cognitive Psychology - 11 Knowledge, Intelligence, and Cognitive Development

Knowledge

what we have learned about this world around us

Embodied cognition/ grounded cognition

the theory that shared representations are used for perception, action, and knowledge and that is the body and physical experience help shape cognition

Categorization

the process of grouping items or ideas together and distinguishing them from other items or ideas

Concepts

mental representations that corresponds to objects or ideas in the world

Feature based categorization

categorization in which categories are defined according to a set of characteristic features

Similarity/ resemblance

how well examples or prototypes fit into a category

Family resemblance

the similarity of exemplars within a category

Prototype

a typical or ideal member of a category

Typicality effect

the principle by which some members of a category are more representative than others

Sentence verification task

an experimental task in which people are asked to verify statements such as “a crow is a bird” or “an ostrich is a bird”; they are quicker to affirm examples that are more typical

Graded membership

the idea that some items are closer to their category prototypes than others are

Exemplar based categoricatio

a theory of categorization proposing that we store numerous, previously encountered exemplars from a category in mind and then match new instances to the stored representations when deciding whether or not they belong

Ad hoc categories

categories defined in terms of goals or themes

Knowledge representation

the study of how categories are organized in the mind

Hierarchical relationship

a categorical relationship in which general categories subsume more specific categories

Superordinate

containing other categories

Subordinate

part of a larger category

Basic level category

the level of category that typically comes easily to most people’s mind (ex.car); in contrast with a superordinate category (ex.vehicle), and subordinate category (ex.toyota camry)

Hierarchical networks

the organization of knowledge into nodes (pieces of information) and links (the connections between nodes) using a hierarchical structure; higher level properties can be generalized into subcategories

Connectionism/ parallel distributed processing

the representation of knowledge in a distributed manner across connections between multiple nodes

Neural nets

brainline algorithms that analyze information in multiple, parallel steps

Excitatory

refers to connections between features or neurons in which activating one raises the likelihood of activating the other

Inhibitory

referring to connections between features or neurons in which activating one decreases the likelihood of activating the other

Domain specific hypothesis

the hypothesis that, throughout the course of evolution, certain categories of objects gained privileged processing in the brain, leading to specialized circuitry and brain areas

Sensory functional account

the idea that concepts are grounded in perception and action

Intelligence

generally speaking, the ability to reason, solve problems, and gain new knowledge

Artificial intelligence (AI)

the technology that enables computers to engage in or mimic complex functions

Individual differences

variation among people

Psychometric approach

in the study of intelligence, an approach that seeks to measure intelligence quantitatively

Information processing approach

in the study of intelligence, an approach that seeks to understand how cognitive and neural processes underlies and contribute to intelligence

Mental age

in intelligence testing, the measure of an individual’s performance compared against that of the average score of children that age

Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales

a widely used test of intelligence, and the source of the term “intelligence quotient”

Intelligence quotient

a performance based metric of a person’s intelligence, the derivation of which has changed over time

Weshler’s scale

widely used contemporary tests of several subscales of intelligence in adults and children

Wechsler’s asult intelligence scale

a test aimed at measuring the global capacity of an adult to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with environments

Bell curve

a graphical depiction of a normal distribution, which is more or less symmetrical and shaped like a bell

General intelligence (g)

the idea of intelligences as a source of individual variation that causes some people to score higher than others on a broad range of cognitive measures

Specific intelligences (s)

intellectual abilities that are specific (ex math) rather than general (Ex all school subjects)

Two factor theory of intelligence

the theory that intelligence is a combination of a general ability combined with specific abilities

Factor analysis

a statistical procedure that takes several independently measured variables and determines the number of underlying factors that best explain the data variance

Crytallized intelligence (Gc)

knowledge as reflected in tests of vocabulary and facts about the world

Fluid intelligence (Gf)

content independent analytical processes that come into play when discerning pattern in the environment, understanding analogies, and drawing inferences

Ravens progressive matrices

a measure of the fluid intelligence in which people see configurations of an undisclosed pattern and must pick the next one in the sequences

Collective intelligence

the intelligence exhibited when individuals work together and make sound decisions in groups

Triarchic theory of intelligence

the theory that differentiates among analytical, practical, and creative intelligences

Analytical intelligence

a type of intelligence that maps roughly onto IQ measures, and is most linked with traditional notions of general intelligence

Creative intelligence

intelligence that involves the ability to reason in novel ways

Practical intelligence

the ability to meet the challenges one encounters in everyday life

Multiple intelligences theory

the theory that intelligence is not a general ability but a collection of abilities that people use to solve problems or produce useful creations

Savant syndrome

a condition characterized by having impressive skill in a particular domain despite having what appears to be generally low intelligence as traditionally measured

Inspection time

the shortest exposure at which people can render accurate judgements

Emotional intelligence

the ability to recognize and manage emotions

Mindset

beliefs about whether abilities are hardwired or malleable

Fixed mindset

the belief that qualities such as intelligence are unchanging

Growth mindset

the idea that intelligence can improve with practice and hard work

Creativity

the ability to arrive at novel solutions and creations

Core knowledge

knowledge of specific types of information, such as language, physics, numbers, and psychology

Heritability

the extent to which genetics can explain variation (differences) among people

Heritability coefficient

a formula for quantifying heritability variance due to genes divided by total variance

Genotyping

the investigation of the presence or absence of particular genes using biological samples

Placebo effect

an effect that cannot be due to a treatment but must result from a patient’s beliefs in the treatment

Neuroplasticity

the ability of neural connections to change with experience

Preferential looking method

an experimental method based on the fact that infants prefer to look at patterns rather at a blank displays

Habituation

familiarity or boredom that results from repetition

Dishabituation

the reemergence of behavioral response that had previously diminished (Ex over time or with repetition)

Perceptual processing

a developmental process in which environmental experiences shape experiences shape perception to lose the ability to distinguish similar input

Sensorimotor perception

a development period from birth to about 2 years, during which infants and toddlers learn about the physicality of objects

Object permanence

the understanding that objects persist and are stable even when they are out of sight

Preoperational period

according to piaget, a developmental period extending from about ages 2 to 7, when children start to think in terms of symbols, allowing them to represent ideas; language is a major hallmark of this period

Conservation task

a test, typically of children’s cognitive abilities, to see whether participants understand that physical properties do not change even when an appearance is changed

Concrete operational period

According to Piaget, the time (around age 7) when children acquire thinking and reasoning abilities that allow them to understand conservation of properties even as objects change

Operators

Thinking and reasoning abilities

Formal operational period

According to Piaget, the developmental period (beginning around age 12) when scientific thinking skills begin to emerge.