Chapter 2: Research Empirical and Related Concepts

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the lecture notes.

Empirical

Information gained through observation or experimentation.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable the researcher deliberately changes to observe its effect on an outcome.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured to see how it is affected by changes in the IV.

Factor

A variable that influences or contributes to an outcome; one among several.

Determinant

A variable that directly and definitively causes or dictates an outcome.

Multifactorial

An outcome influenced by multiple interacting or additive variables.

Validity

The extent to which a test or instrument measures what it is intended to measure.

Valid instrument

Measures what it is supposed to measure and does not measure anything else.

Reliability

Consistency of a measure; produces the same results under the same conditions.

Cross-sectional study

A study design that examines data at a single point in time and cannot determine causality due to lack of temporality and potential confounding.

Temporal precedence

Cause must precede the effect in time for causality.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables, summarized by a correlation coefficient (r) ranging from -1 to +1.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A statistic that quantifies the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

Strong negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease; e.g., r = -0.80 with data clustered along a downward-sloping line.

No correlation

No linear relationship between variables; data are randomly scattered (e.g., r = 0.00).

Moderate positive correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to increase, though with some variability (e.g., r = 0.65).

Synonyms for factor

Variable; predictor; cause; independent variable.

Synonyms for outcome

Result; effect; response; dependent variable.

Cross-sectional

Data collected at one point in time; limited for inferring causality.

Prospective study

Follows participants forward in time; can suggest causality but is still subject to confounding.

Experiment

Manipulates the IV and often uses random assignment to control extraneous variables; strongest design for cause–effect.

Temporality

The requirement that the cause precedes the effect in time.

Meta-analysis

A quantitative synthesis of data from multiple studies; typically highly objective.

Systematic review

A review using a predefined protocol to identify and appraise studies, aiming to minimize bias.

Narrative review

A review that is often subjective and may be less objective.

Cohen's d (Standardized Mean Difference)

Effect size; small = 0.20, moderate = 0.50, large = 0.80.

Mediator

A mediating variable that explains how or why an effect occurs between IV and DV.

Mechanism

The process or pathway through which an effect occurs; the how or why.

Moderator

A variable that changes the strength or direction of the IV–DV relationship (when or for whom).

Mediator vs Moderator

Mediator explains how/why an effect occurs; Moderator affects the strength/direction and defines when/for whom.

Paths of physical activity on psychology

Cognitive, Biological/Physiological, and Social pathways.