AP Exam cluster study cards

Civil Society

Composition of voluntary associations that are autonomous from the state, such as religious organizations, news media, business, labor unions, and NGOs

Political Culture

Collective attitudes, values, and beliefs on the role of government, rights of individuals, the extent and role of citizens in policy making (norms of behaviors, set expectations). Influencing factors are geography, religious traditions, and history

Political Socialization

Spread of political culture,

Political Identity

Set of values and beliefs about goals of government, public policy, or politics

Individualism

Belief in individual civil liberties and freedom over governmental restrictions

Neoliberalism

Belief in limited governmental intervention in in the economy and society; support for privatization free trade, deregulation, and the elimination of state subsidies

Communism

Belief in the abolition of private property, with near-total government control of the economy

Socialism

Belief in the reduction income disparities, and the nationalization of major private industries

Facism

Extreme nationalist ideology that favors authoritarian rule and the rights of the ethnic majority over those of the ethic minorities and the political opposition

Populism

Political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over those of the elites

Rule of Law

The state is limited to the same laws as the citizen

Rule by Law

The law reinforces the authority of the state

Post-material values

Created by economic changes such as industrializing, focus of quality of life as opposed to life itself. 70%-80% of citizens work in tertiary sector, 15%-25% in secondary sector, and less than 5% in primary sector.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The total value of all the goods and services produced by a country's economy in a given year, except for profits made outside the country (GDP per capita divides GDP by population)

Purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita

Like GDP but takes into account what people can purchase in the economy

Human Development Index

Measures the well-being of a country's people by taking into account GDP, adult literacy, life expectancy, and educational enrollment

Gini Index

A mathematical formula used to determine the amount of economic inequality in a country

Political Participation

Citizen involvement, and influence in the political process, can be voluntary or coerced, in support of the system or against it, formal or informal, both regime types have it

Political Participation in Democracies

Essential, as it's the basis of the regime, and provides a huge amount of legitimacy, as well as giving political efficacy to the regime. Common forms are elections, referrenda, personal contact, protests, civil society, and political violence terrorism.

Political Participation in Authoritarian Regimes

More restricted and controlled, more supportive, less oppositional, less voluntary, more coerced. Allowed because it can increase legitimacy within the state and internationally, and can relieve pressure from citizens to influence politics, as well as listen to what the people want.

Civil Rights

Promote equality, granted by the government, available to all, overlap with liberties

Civil Libeties

Basic freedom from government interference. Granted by democracies but limited to a certain extent, such as national security concerns (Abdul Shareef). Authoritarian regimes restrict civil rights and liberties.

State-Controlled Media

Censored to comply with the government narrative

State-Funded Media

Has journalistic freedom, but receives funding from the government

Political and Social Cleavages

Internal divisions that impact the political system, based on identity and values, exist everywhere but vary in intensity and type (ethnicity, religion, region, class). Democratic regimes are concerned with unity and legitimacy, often devolve power to minority groups. Authoritarian regimes are concerned with maintaining stability and control, use repressive and coercive tactics, provide the illusion of inclusivity. Main challenge and concern created by these things are the threat to a state's legitimacy and sovereignty.

Single Member District Electoral System

Candidates compete to represent a geographic district in the legislature

Proportional Electoral System

Seats in the legislature are allocated based on the percentage of vote received by political parties in the election

Mixed Electoral System

An electoral system for a legislature where some seats are allocated using single member districts and some seats are allocated using proportional representation

UK Electoral Systems

Its executives are not directly elected. The head of government, the Prime Minister, is selected by the House of Commons. The head of state, the Monarch, is determined by heredity. The United Kingdom uses a single member district electoral system for electing the lower house of its legislature, the House of Commons. The upper house, the House of Lords, is appointed.

Mexico Electoral Systems

Mexico uses a direct election for electing its President with no run-off election. Mexico uses a mixed electoral system for electing its legislature.

Nigeria Electoral Systems

Nigeria uses a direct election for electing its President with a run-off election. In order to be elected President, a candidate must receive a majority of votes and at least 25 percent of the vote in 2/3rds of the states. Nigeria uses a single member district electoral system for electing its legislature.

Russia Electoral Systems

Russia uses a direct election for electing its President with a run-off election. Russia uses a mixed electoral system for electing its lower house of the legislature, the Duma. Its upper house, the Federation Council, is appointed.

Iran Electoral Systems

Iran uses a direct election system system for electing its President with a run-off election. Iran uses a single member district electoral system for electing its Parliament, the Majiles.

China Electoral Systems

China does not have elections for its executive or legislative branches. The only elections that occur in China happen at the local government level.

One Party System

A one-party political system is common in authoritarian regimes. It is when one-political party is the allowed party that fills the positions of government and exercises control over the state

Two Party System

A two-party political system is when there are two major political parties that compete for control of the national government. A two-party system is typical in states where there are single member district elections

Multi Party System

A multi-party political system is when there are three or more political parties that compete for control of the national government. A multi-party system is typical of substantive democracies or electoral systems that use proportional representation

UK Political Party System and 3 Party Examples

The United Kingdom has a two-party political system because there are two major parties that compete for control of the national government. Conservative, Labour, and Liberal Democrat.

Mexico Political Party System and 3 Party Examples

Mexico has a multi-party system. PRI, PAN, MORENA.

Nigeria Political Party System and 2 Party Examples

Nigeria is a multi-party system due to the number of small ethnic parties that compete in elections. PDP, APC.

Russia Political Party System and 2 Party Examples (Dominant and Systematic Opposition)

Russia was a multiparty system and has moved into the direction of having a dominant political party. United Russia, A Just Russia.

Iran Political Party System and 2 Faction Examples

Iran does not have a strong party system. Instead there are two ideological factions that compete inside the theocratic regime for control of the secular government. Conservatives, Reformers.

China Political Party System and 2 Party Examples (Dominant and Systematic Opposition)

China is a one-party system where one political party - the Chinese Communist Party controls the government and sets policy for the state. CCP, China Democratic League.

Interest Group

Interest groups are organizations created to represent and articulate a specific interest or policy.

Social Movement

Social Movements are large groups working together to effect political or social change.

Pluralist System

A pluralist system is one where interest groups have significant autonomy from the state and compete against each other to set policy for the state.

Corporatist System

A corporatist system is one where interest groups have little autonomy from the state and are usually created by the state to transmit state policy to the people.

UK: Pluralist or Corporatist, Social Movement Example

Pluralist, Brexit, representation

Mexico: Pluralist or Corporatist, Social Movement Example

Pluralist, Zapatistas (indigenous rights/economic inequality)

Nigeria: Pluralist or Corporatist, Social Movement Example

Pluralist, MEND (minority rights)

Russia: Pluralist or Corporatist, Social Movement Example

Corporatist, LGBTQ+ rights, repression

Iran: Pluralist or Corporatist, Social Movement Example

Corporatist, The Green Movement (free and fair elections), repression

China: Pluralist or Corporatist, Social Movement Example

Corporatist, 1989 Tiananmen Square Democracy Movement, repression, Environmental Rights, representation

Parliamentary System

Lawmaking and executive functions combined, national legislature selects and removes head of government and cabinet, UK, more legislative efficiency, fewer check and balances, voters are farther removed from government

Presidential System

Cabinet is responsible to elected executive, only removable by legislature through impeachment, fixed-term popular elections for legislature, executive is both head of state and government, Mexico and Nigeria, divides are created through checks and balances, executive only held accountable through elections

Semi-presidential System

Separate popular elections for president and legislature, president nominates prime minister to be approved by legislature, members of cabinet held accountable by president and legislature, Russia

UK Executive System

Head of government Prime Minister Boris Johnson, forms government after elections, directs legislation, chief diplomat, calls national elections, 5 year terms based on the Fixed Terms Parliament Act of 2011, can be removed from office by a vote of no confidence. Head of state Queen Elizabeth II, symbolic representation, serves for life or until resignation.

Mexico Executive System

Head of state and government President Andres Manuel Lopez-Obrador, issues executive decrees, leads Congress, appoints/removes judges, oversees bureaucracy, chief diplomat, commander in chief, 1 6 year term, can be removed through impeachment or recall referendum.

Nigeria Executive System

Head of state and government President Muhammadu Buhari, appoints cabinet, signs legislation, refers bills to Supreme Court for judicial review, commander in chief, 2 possible 4 year terms, can be removed through impeachment.

Russia Executive System

Head of State Vladimir Putin, carries out constitution, directs policy, commander in chief, resolves citizenship issues, ceremonial duties, grants pardons, unlimited 6 year terms, can only be removed through elections. Head of government Premier Mikhail Mishustin, day to day running of government, can only affect domestic policy, can be denied office by the Duma.

Iran Executive System

Head of state Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khameini, source of power and authority for the state, ensure Islam is followed throughout the state, commander in chief, appoints half the Guardian Council, appoints chief justice, maintains economic control, has the final say in policy, serves for life, can be removed by Assembly of Religious Experts for failing to uphold religious duties. Head of government President Ebrahim Raisi, drafts budget, initiates legislation, selects cabinet ministers, executes laws, diplomat, 2 4 year terms.

China Executive System

Real executive power lies in the CCP. Head of state President Xi Jinping, ceremonial, holds party power, unlimited 5 year terms, can be removed through elections. Head of government Premier Li Keqiang, domestic policy assigned to them, once renewable 5 year term, can be removed by Congress but in practice it's the president's decision.

UK Legislative System

Upper house House of Lords, less powerful, members must be appointed. Lower house House of Commons, more powerful, final say in all matters, directly elected. Very independent, strong checks and balances.

Mexico Legislative System

Upper house Senate, confirms presidential appointees, approves treaties. Lower house Chamber of Deputies, passes laws, levies taxes, verifies election results. Since the end of PRI rule, independence has increased, much more separate from executive now.

Nigeria Legislative System

Upper house Senate, lowe house House of Representatives. Independence has increased since the end of military dictatorship, has successfully checked executive, and pursues legislation not supported by them.

Russia Legislative System

Upper house Federation Council, less powerful, appointed, approves Duma's legislation, represents regional interests, structured to be loyal to Putin. Lower house Duma, more powerful, limited checks on executive, but if they reject proposed Premier 3 times, they must be dissolved and a new legislature elected. Duma largely serves to increase Putin's legitimacy.

Iran Legislative System

Unicameral, Majilis, elected, initiates/passes legislation, oversees federal budget, can remove cabinet but not president, president cannot veto legislation or dissolve Majilis, creating conflict. The Majilis is controlled by the Guardian Council, and if there is significant conflict between the two parties, the Expediency Council gets the final say.

China Legislative System

Unicameral, National People's Congress, indirectly elected, technically has the power of constitutional amendment, pass not create laws, elect president and premier. However, head of NPC must be on the CCP's standing committee, giving them control.

UK Judicial System

3 justice systems (Northern Ireland, Scotland, England & Wales), all lead to Supreme Court (est. 2009), justices nominated by panel of lawyers. SC is highest court of appeals, does not have judicial review (only parliament can repeal parliamentary law). Justice system is independent, neutral, and non-partisan, are able to rule without interference from legislature.

Mexico Judicial System

Multiple levels of courts, including a Supreme Court, justices are nominated by president and approved by senate, for 15 year terms. Has the power of judicial review, can be forced to act on constitutional matters by a 1/3 COD vote, measure can be striked down by an 8/11 vote of justices. The most powerful judicial institution is the Federal Judiciary Council, which oversees the entire court system, including the appointment of federal justices. Current SC president is also FJC president. Judiciary is on track to indepence, thanks to constitutional amendments, but there are concerns about the proximity of the FJC to the president.

Nigeria Judicial System

State and federal courts following the British model, which exist alongside the Sharia courts in 12 Northern states. During military rule the judiciary was decimated, so current judges are incompetent, and easily manipulated by the government. SC is appellate and has judicial review power. Judicial independence is growing but currently insignificant.

Russia Judicial System

Supreme Court justices nominated by the president, approved by FC, has abstract judicial review. SC is used to increase Putin's legitimacy.

Iran Judicial System

Justices are trained in Iranian Sharia law, head of judiciary appointed by Supreme Leader, in charge of nominating half the Guardian Council. main function is ensuring legal system is based on religious law, 5 year renewable terms, technically has judicial review, but cannot override Supreme Leader. Tool of Supreme Leader, rule by law.

China Judicial System

Tiered system, appointed by CCP, no judicial review, rule by law.

State

Organization that maintains a monopoly of violence over a territory

Institution

A stable, long-lasting organization that turns political ideas into policy

Regime

Fundamental rules established but the state that control access to the exercise of political powe

Authoritarian regime

Ruled over by political elites with little or no impact from citizens, can be legitimate

Democratic regime

Has free, fair, regular elections, civil liberties, rule of law, due process, neutrality of judiciary, checks and balances, open civil society, civilian control of military

Totalitarianism

Seek to control and change all aspects of political and economic society, have a strong ideological goal, use violence

Illiberal Democracy

Holds elections, not fair and free, procedural, heavily influenced by politics

Substantive Democracy

Has a clear adherence to the regime

Soverignty

The ability of a state to carry out actions and policies without interference

Political Legitimacy

The right to rule as determined by the citizens of the state

Traditional Legitimacy

Derived from traditions of the state

Rational-Legal Legitimacy

Derived from the adherence to a set of rules accepted by the citizens of a state

Charismatic Legitimacy

Based on the personality of a person or group

Unitary System

Centralized government, same laws at all levels of government

Federal System

Multiple levels of government with different responsibilities

Dual Federalism

The idea that different levels of government have separate spheres of control

Cooporative Federalism

National and state governments working together on many different areas of policy

New Federalism

Regan's push to return administrative authority to state governments

Progressive Federalism

Modern relationship between federal and state governments, cooperative and coercive

Presidential System

Executive and legislature elected in separate popular elections

Parlimentary System

Citizens elect legislature, who in turn select head of government and cabinet

Head of Government

Chief executive

Head of State

Public persona representing the government, may be figurehead

Bureaucracy

Federal government agencies and institutions

Bicameralism

2 branch legislature

Indenpendent Legislatures

The ability of a legislative body to pass legislation without interference from outside parties