Gender, crime and justice

Patterns in crime

→ Most crime seems to be committed by men; especially violent/sexual

Questions on gender patterns

1. Do women really commit less crime? Or is it just the stats that say this?
2. How can we explain those women who do offend?
3. Why do men commit crime?

Do women commit less crime?

**→** Some say statistics underestimate amount of females offending

ARGUMENTS TO SUPPORT

→ female crimes less likely to be reported

* shoplifting vs violence

→ less likely to be prosecuted when they ARE reported

Gender and patterns of crime

→ More women convicted of property offences

→ More men convicted of violent/sexual offences

→ Males more likely to be repeat offenders/have longer, more serious criminal careers

Pollak -- chivalry thesis

Men have protective attitudes to women, so are unwilling to arrest/convict them

→ Crimes less likely to end up in stats as a result

→ CJS is more lenient because agents are men, who are ==**socialised to act chivalrously to women**==

→ Women are ==**positively labelled**==

→ Women more secretive; better at getting away with it

Evaluation of Pollak

→ First to suggest that stats underrepresent female crime; important sociological theory

Evidence supporting chivalry thesis

→ ==**Self-report studies**==; show female offenders treated more leniently

**→** ^^**Graham & Bowling**^^; Men 2.33x more likely to admit to committing an offence, vs stats saying 4x more likely

→ ^^**Campbell**^^; Women more likely to be cautioned

* THough this may reflect seriousness of offence

→ ==**Official stats**==; women get fines over prison

Evidence against chivalry thesis

→ ==**Self-report studies**==; males commit more, serious offences

→ Male male crimes go ==**unreported**==; e.g. rape, crimes of the powerful

→ ^^**Farrington & Morris**^^; women arent sentenced more leniently for comparable offences

→ ^^**Buckle & Farrington**^^; Witnessed 2x as many men shoplifting; women more likely to be pros. for this

→ Links to ^^**Cicourel**^^; dont take official stats at face value

Bias against women in the CJS

^^**Feminists**^^ say CJS is biased AGAINSt women, not towards them

→ Treats women harsher, especially if they deviate from gender norms

Heidensohn -- bias against women

Double standards of courts; punish girls for sexual activity, but not boys

Carlen -- bias against women

Women with kids in care more liekly to be jailed than ‘good mothers’

Walklate -- bias against women

In rape cases, V is on trial rather than D

→ Alos, men treated more leniently in DV

Explaining female crime

→ Women seem to have generally lower rates of offending

→ Three explanations:

* Sex Role Theory
* Control Theory
* Liberation Thesis

Parsons -- sex role theory

Gender socialisation in the nuclear family is why theres a difference

→ Girls socialised to be reserved

→ Boys socialised to take risks/be competitive

Cohen -- sex role theory

Absence of adult male role model in the home means boys may **turn to male street gangs as a source of masculine identity**

→ Status via delinquency

→ Agreed with by ^^**right realists**^^

Evaluation of sex role theorty

→ Shouldnt assume that because women are biologically capable fo having kids, that htey’re best suited to socialise them

Heidensohn -- patriarchal control

Women commit less control because **they are ideologically controlled by patriarchal society**

→ Less opportunity to offend

Control at home -- Heidensohn

Womens domestic role restricts time/movement; ==**confines them to home**==

→ Men impose this role on women via DV/financial power

→ Daughters more restricted

* More likely to have to do housework
* Develop a ==**bedroom culture** ==of socialising at home with friends

Control at work -- Heidensohn

→ Women in subordinate positions in work, reduces criminal opportunity

→ ‘==**Glass ceiling**==’ prevents promotion to senior positions

→ Less chance for white-collar crime

Control in public -- Heidensohn

→ Fear of male sexual violence, especially due to media reports of rape

* Frightens women into staying indoors

→ Fear of being defined as not respectable

* e.g. via dress, makeup, actions

Carlen -- what females commit crimes?

Most convicted serious female criminals are working-class

Hirschi’s control theory

→ Used to explain female crime

→ Humans act rationally, controlled by offered rewards for conforming

→ People commit crimes if they dont think theyll get rewards/rewards of crime are bigger

Carlen -- gender deals

W/c women generally led to conform via promises of ‘deals’

→ ==**Class deal**==; working = decent standing of living

→ ==**Gender deal**==; conforming to gender roles = material/emotional rewards of fam. life

→ Women fail to see benefits of these deals e.g. via abuse/unemployment, so turn to crime

* ==**Nothing to lose by turning to crime to escape poverty**==

Evaluation of control theory/gender dealsq

→ Sees womens behaviour as determined by external factors

→ Ignores importance of free will

Adler -- liberation thesis

As women become liberated from patriarchy, types/rates of crimes will become similar to men

→ Opportunities more equal, so women are **adopting traditional male roles**

* LEads to rise in offending

→ Opportunities to commit white-collar crime at work

Evaluation of liberation thesis

Female crime was rising BEFORE womens liberation movements

Criminalisation of females

→ Rise in women committing ‘male’ crimes supports LT

→ BUT some evidence says no change in involvement in violent crime

Steffensmeier & Schwartz -- criminalisation of females

Increase in official stats isnt matched by self-reports/victim surveys

→ Increase is due to CJS ‘==**net widening**==’ and ==**defining deviance up**==

→ Prosecuting women for less serious violence than before

Worrall -- criminalisation of females

Girls’ misbehaviour is now criminality, whereas before it was seen as a welfare issue

Feminisation of poverrty

→ Women more likely to live in poverty than men

→ Most LPs are women, LPs likely to be in poverty

→ May cause shoplifting/involvement in violent crime due to living in an area full of this

Moral panic about girls

→ Media sees young women as **out of control**

→ Reports of binge drinking/girl gangs affects CJS

→ LEads to ==**SFP**==; police taking tougher stance, so more convictions

Sharpe -- moral panic about girls

CJS professionals influenced by media stereotypes of violent ‘ladettes’

Crime Survey for England & Wales -- gender and victimisation

Differences in who is a victim of what

→ More men victims of violence/homicide

→ More women victims of INTIMATE violence (1/4)

→ 5x more women reported SA, but only 8% report to police

→ Women have **greater fear of crime, but victimised less**

Evaluation of victim surveys

→ May not show **severity of victimisation**

Messerschmidt -- accomplishing masculinity

Masculinity is seen as an ‘**accomplishment**’ that men must constantly maintain/present to others

→ Some men have more resources than others to draw upon

→ Turn to crime as a way of asserting masculinity

→ ==**Hegemonic vs subordinated masculinity**==

Hegemonic masculinity -- accomplishing

→ Dominant form of masculinity; most men wish to accomplish this

→ Paid work, subordinating women, heterosexuality

Subordinated masculinity -- accomplishing

→ W/c and m/e men **lack resources to accomplish HM**, so turn to crime

→ Some m/c men also use crime to achieve HM, but usually white-collar crime

Criticisms of hegemonic + achieving masculinity

→ Doesn’t explain why not all men use crime to achieve masculinity

→ ==**Overworks**== concept, trying to explain ALL male crime incl. white collar

→ ==**Goes in circles**==; says masculinity explains male crime because htey are crimes committed by males (who are inherently violent)

Postmodernity, masculinity and crime

→ Globalisation = loss of traditional male jobs

→ Expansion of service sector e.g. clubs

→ Young w/c men given both illegal and legal opportunities to express masculinity

Winlow -- postmodernity + masculinity

Bouncer work gives young men paid work AND opportunity business ventures in drugs/tobacco

→ Demonstrating masculinity via violence and crime

Evaluation of postmodernity and masculinity

→ SHows how expression of masculinity changes with move to postmodern. society