General Psychology Module 2

Heredity:

Passing on of genetic traits from parents to children.

Allele:

Alternate forms of a gene.

Dominant:

Dominant alleles are observable and tend to be expressed over recessive alleles.

Traits:

Features or characteristics of a person.

Recessive:

Recessive alleles are only expressed when a dominant allele is not present.

Homozygous:

He or she has two copies of the same allele.

Heterozygous:

He or she has two different alleles.

Phenotype:

Physical expression of the genotype.

Genotype:

Genetic makeup of an individual.

What is Genetics?

The study of genes and heredity.

How many chromosomes does the nucleus of most human cells contain?

46 chromosomes.

What are chromosomes?

Thread-like structures that come in 23 pairs. One member of each pair comes from the individual’s father and one from the mother.

What is DNA?

A structure that contains genetic information and is found on chromosomes.

What are segments of DNA called?

Genes.

True or false. Most disorders that have strong genetic basis appear to have numerous genes involved.

True.

What are family studies?

Family studies examine genetic relatives to see how the closeness of genetic relationships corresponds to various traits.

What are adoption studies?

To compare children who have been adopted to those who have not been adopted. This can help tease out the effects of environment versus genetics.

True or false. Adoption studies typically find that adopted children share more similarities to their biological parents rather than their adoptive parents, in a variety of areas.

True.

Sympathetic portion of the nervous system:

AKA central nervous system. Portion devoted to stressful and emergency situations.

Parasympathetic portion of the nervous system:

AKA Peripheral nervous system. Portion devoted to routine, calmer functioning.

Central Nervous System:

Made up of the brain, spinal cord, and all nerve cells in these areas.

Peripheral Nervous System:

Made up of nerve cells, or neurons, everywhere else in the body.

True or false. The Peripheral nervous system is comprised of the somatic division (focusing on connections with the sense organs) and the autonomic division (focusing on connections with internal organs.

True.

What does the Somatic division focus on?

Connections with the sense organs.

What does the Autonomic division focus on?

Connections with internal organs.

Soma:

The cell body; contains the nucleus.

Dendrites:

Branching fibers that receive information and bring it into the neuron; each neuron usually has many dendrites.

Axon:

Leaves the neuron and transmits information out of it (remember: axons away); each neuron typically has only one axon.W

What is the end of an axon called?

Terminal button.

Synapse:

Where one neuron sends information to another; it’s the point of contact between neurons; the synapse is very important because it is at the synapse that neurons release a chemical substance called a neurotransmitter.

True or false. A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance.

True.

What is a sensory neuron?

Afferent neurons, carry information from sense organs TO the brain.

What is a motor neuron?

Efferent neuron, carry information FROM the brain to the body.

What are interneurons?

Most common type of neurons, and these neurons relay messages among sensory, motor, and other interneurons. Think of them as the center players in the “telephone game”.

Action Potential:

Bioelectrical nerve impulse that runs down a neuron’s axon and ultimately causes a neurotransmitter to be released at the terminal button.

Resting Potential:

When a neuron is inactive, its ions have a slight negative charge known as resting potential.

All-or-none principle:

Neuron either fires or it doesn’t.

During resting potential, ____________ ions are inside the cell and ____________ ions are outside.

Potassium ions, sodium ions.

What are nerve impulses?

Ionic imbalances that travel from one end of a neuron to the other because of a potential difference between the inside of the axon and its surroundings.

Action Potentials:

Being when a stimulus (such as burning your finger) changes how permeable the cell membrane is.

Repolarizonation:

Occurs when sodium channels close and potassium channels open. Potassium ions then rush out of the cell.D

Depolarization:

Sodium channels open and the sodium ions come rushing into the cell.

Neurotransmitters:

Chemicals that are released.

What is the gap that neurotransmitters are released into called?

Synapse or synaptic cleft.

What does Post-Synaptic mean?

Neuron is on the other side of the synapse from the neuron that released the transmitter.

Pre-Synaptic:

Refers to the neuron releasing the neurotransmitter.

What are the three major neurotransmitters?

Dopamine, Serotonin, Endorphins.

Dopamine:

Major multi-tasker. Involved in all addictive behaviors as well as sensation of pleasure. It is often needed for initiating motor activities. While it is hard to over-emphasize the importance of this neurotransmitter that so often affects many other neurotransmitters in its various roles, it is apparently easy for some to over-simplify it.

Serotonin:

Very important for regulating mood, sleep, appetite.

Endorphins:

Are our bodies natural pain relievers. They rush through the brain and inhibit pain, making it not nearly as bad as it would have been without these natural painkillers.

True or false. Endorphins are released by the pituitary gland when we exercise.

True. Which helps to explain the phenomenon of a “runner’s high”.

What two narcotics work by mimicking the body’s natural endorphins?

Morphine and codeine.

What is the endocrine’s roadway?

The blood stream.

What makes up the endocrine system?

Pituitary, Thyroid, Adrenals, Pancreas, Ovaries, Testes.

Pituitary:

Master gland. Keeping other glands under control; takes orders from the hypothalamus.

Thyroid:

Regulates metabolism and growth.A

Adrenals:

Regulate fight or flight response, metabolism, sexual desire.P

Pancreas:

Regulates glucose (Sugar) metabolism.

Ovaries:

Regulates development of female sexual characteristics.

Testes:

Regulates development of male sexual characteristics and desire.

What hormone keeps your muscles tensed and your heart pounding?

Adrenaline AKA epinephrine.

What is the bottom layer, at the base of the brain ca

What is the middle layer of the brain called?

Limbic system.

What is the top layer of the brain called?

Cerebrum.

Medulla:

Part of the brain stem, located where the brain stem and spinal cord meet.

What does the medulla do?

Regulates breathing and heart beat. Responsible for involuntary functions.

What is each half of the brain called?

A hemisphere.

Cerebellum:

Lies at the base of the brain, above the medulla. Coordinates muscle movement and posture. An injury to the cerebellum would result in impaired movement, such as difficulty walking or dancing.

Thalamus:

Right above the Cerebellum. Switchboard in the brain. Receives and sends information, particularly information about movement as well as sensory information, to and from the cerebral cortex.

What are the large nuclei that are important for controlling movement called?

Basal Ganglia.

What are the structures of the limbic system responsible for?

Memory, emotion control, other important functions.

Hippocampus:

Responsible for establishing long term memories.

Hypothalamus:

Responsible for making sure that all the necessities of your body- nutrients, water, body temperature are balanced. Tells you when you’re hungry. Injury to hypothalamus can cause obesity.

What is the cerebrum?

Outer covering of the brain. Made up of a covering grey cell matter called the cerebral cortex.

How many hemispheres is the cerebral cortex divided into?

Two halves, or hemispheres.

Corpus callosum:

The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are separated by a space connected by a mass of fibers known as the corpus callosum.

What is the cerebral cortex associated with?

Thinking. Certain parts are responsible for processing certain types of information.

How many parts to the cerebral cortex are there?

Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal.

Frontal Lobe:

Responsible for processing information pertaining to planned motor movement and cognitive activities such as planning and deciding.

True or false. The frontal lobe is where voluntary movement is decided.

True.

Prefrontal cortex:

Front portion of the frontal lobe, and it actually takes up most of the frontal lobe. The judgement, decision-making and personality tasks of the frontal lobe are thought to take place here.

Parietal Lobe:

Upper back portion of the brain. Responsible for processing sensory information, particularly touch. When you injure a part of your body, such as burning your finger, a pain messages is sent from the nerves in your finger to the parietal lobe.

Occipital Lobe:

Located in the lower back portion of the brain. Processes visual information. Neurons in your eyes send visual information in the form of electrical currents and chemical messengers to the occipital lobe.

Temporal Lobe:

Located on either side of the brain. Processes auditory information as well as some visual information that aids in pattern recognition and recognition of objects. This lobe is important for memory storage, particularly memory needed for understanding language.

Brain Plasticity:

The ability of our brain to change and change aspects of its function and even structure in response to these experiences and external events such as injuries is known as brain plasiticity.

What is an EEG?

Electroencephalograph. Picks up brain waves, or electrical activity. Electrodes are placed on the scalp so that brain waves can be detected. The EEG can then reveal which portions of the brain are activated by particular thinking tasks.

PET Scan:

Positron emission tomography. Tracks radioactive substances that are administered to patients in the form of a dye. These substances then “highlight” portions of the brain so that a picture of the brain can be produced.

MRI:

Magnetic resonance imaging. Administers a magnetic pulse and then maps how the different tissues of the brain respond. A more advanced version, the fMRI, can better determine brain activity and is being used to learn more about brain diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease.

CT:

Computerized tomography or CAT (computerized axial tomography). Scanning involves passing a special x-ray through the brain so that a picture of the brain can be produced.