lab practical 2

Prokaryotic cells and 2 domains

lacks a membrane bound nucleus

• archae

• bacteria

Eukaryotic cells and 4 domains

have a membrane bound nucleus

• protista

• fungi

• plantae

• animalia

what is this?

protista

• nucleus

• cilia

• unicellular

what is this

plantae

• chloroplasts

• cell wall

• multicellular

what is this

fungi

• ascospores

• multicellular

what is this

animalia

• nucleus

• no cell wall

• multicellular

plesiomorphy

ancestral character state

apomorphy

a new derived character state

autapomorphy

derived character state that is unique to a monophyletic taxonomic group

synapomorphy

a derived trait present in ancestral species and shared exclusively with its evolutionary descendants

homoplasy

derived character that is shared between two or more organisms that did not arise from common ancestry

monophyletic group

a group of organisms that includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants.

paraphyletic group

a group that includes a common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants

polyphyletic group

a group of organisms that share a common set of traits, but whose members do not share a recent common ancestor

5 assumptions of the hardy-weinberg principle

• no natural selection

• no mutation

• no migration(gene flow)

• no genetic drift (large population)

• no sexual selection (random mating)

Hardy-weinberg model

p²+2pq+q²=1

If the frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype (AA) is 0.49, and the population is in H-W equilibrium, what is the frequency of the dominant allele?

p² + 2pq + q² = 1

p² = 0.49

  p² = 0.7 

If the frequency of the recessive allele (a) is 0.3, what is the frequency of the dominant allele?

p + q = 1

p + 0.3 = 1

p = 0.7

how many spores show crossing over

13 or 14

• In a population of ladybugs, you find that 100 individuals have no spots (g, recessive) and 300 have spots.

• Assuming the population is in H-W equilibrium, what are the frequencies for each genotype? What are the allele frequencies? How many individuals are heterozygous for the trait?

Allele frequencies:

p = 0.75

q = 0.25

Genotype frequencies:

p² = 0.563

2pq = 0.375 

q² = 0.0625

individual counts:

GG = 225

Gg = 150 

gg = 25

• In a population of cats, you find that 25 individuals are feisty (c, recessive) and 50 are docile.

• Assuming the population is in H-W equilibrium, what are the allele frequencies? What are the frequencies for the three genotypes? How many individuals are heterozygous for the trait?

Allele frequencies:

p = 0.67

q = 0.33

Genotype frequencies:

p² = (0.67 x 0.67) =  0.45

2pq = 2(0.67 x 0.33) = 0.44 

q² = (0.33 x 0.33) = 0.11

individual counts:

CC = 0.45 x 75 = 33.75 

Cc =  0.44 x 75 = 33

cc = 8.25

Direction selection

frequencies change to lef or right of the equilibrium

Disruptive selection

frequencies change to both sides of the equilibrium

stabilizing selection

median phenotype has greatest advantage

Balancing selection

multiple alleles are mantained

sagital crest (red)

lambdoidal crest (white)

Teeth type

homologous structure

Control: Calculation of Standard Deviation and Standard Error and 95% Confidence Interval

t, Chi-sq, and F tables are provided for reference to significance

DF = # of groups – 1

Alpha value = 0.05 (always for this class)

Chi-sq test is used to compare….

observed vs expected values

T-test is used when we want to compare …

means amongst two samples.

ANOVA is used when we want to compare…

means among three or more samples.

Linear regression is used to…

correlate one variable against another.

Type 1 versus Type 2 Errors

Type I Error Rate (α) which is the probability of concluding two (or more) means ARE different when they actually ARE NOT different.

Type II Error Rate (β) which is the probability of concluding two (or more) means are NOT different when they actually ARE different.

Is there a significant difference?

All overlap, NO significant difference

Is there a significant difference?

One group stands out (CIs don’t touch), there IS a significant difference

How to evaluate different lever systems in terms of the effectiveness of moving the load

MA= In lever length/ out lever length

• In-lever length (a) = length between the fulcrum and placement of effort

• Out-lever length (b) = length between the fulcrum and the placement of the load

Biting measurements

• Biting – temporalis muscle pulls against coronoid process to CLOSE the jaws.

  • ILB = In-lever Biting = Distance between the mandibular condyle and coronoid process

• OLB = Out-lever Biting = Distance between the mandibular condyle and either the canines or the incisors

Chewing measurements

• Chewing – masseter muscle pulls against mandibular angle to pull the jaw upward

  • ILC = In-lever Chewing = Distance between the Mandibular Condyle and Mandibular Angle

• OLC = Out-lever Chewing = Distance between the Mandibular Condyle and midpoint of the molars or the point where molars and premolars meet.

Modes of locomotion

• Bipedal – walking on two limbs

• Quadrupedal – walking on four limbs

• Orthograde = vertical posture

• Pronograde = horizontal posture

Carnivore, Herbivore, Omnivore Musculature Comparison

The major muscles that operate the jaw are the temporalis muscle and the masseter muscle. They pull against the mandible which pivots at the fulcrum provided by the mandibular condyle.

Closed-Growth System: 

 Environment in which NO nutrients are added and NO waste products removed.

Bacteria divide through binary fission

Doubling/generation time

= time taken to get from N to 2N

- Bacterial doubling times can range from 10 minutes to 30 days. The average doubling time is between 20-60 minutes.

- Environmental factors (e.g., temperature, pH, nutrient availability) directly impact the doubling time.

- The effects of various environmental factors on growth rate(doubling time) can be examined using a closed growth system.

Phases of a closed-growth system

Dicot

Leaf types

Dermal - plant tissue type

• Covering of plant body for protection

• Parenchyma cells

• Prevent desiccation

Ground - plant tissue type

• Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma

• Support and storage

• Ground tissue in leaf mesophyll is primary site of photosynthesis

Vascular - plant tissue type

• Xylem

  • Transport of nutrients & water from soil

• Phloem

  • Transports products of photosynthesis & other materials around plant body

Angiosperms – Flowering Plants – Division Magnoliophyta

• Flower Structure

• Megasporangium

  • Megaspore mother cell

  • Produces the ovum and the polar bodies

• Microsporangium

  • Microspore mother cell

  • Produces the pollen

Angiosperms – Dicots versus Monocots

• Dicot

  • 2 Cotyledons

• Monocots

  • Single Cotyledon

Eudicot or monocot

eudicot

eudicot or monocot

monocot

Eudicot or monocot

monocot

what is this?

gymnosperm

what is this?

fern

what is this

Byrophyte - moss

what is this

gymnosperm

Bryophytes

Tissues

what is this

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

what is this

cardiac muscle

what is this

Columnar epithelium

What is this

Nervous tissue

what is this

skeletal muscle

what is this

Pseudostratified squamous epithelium

several layers

what is this

Simple squamous epithelium

Single-layer

what is this

smooth muscle

what is this

Cuboidal epithelium

what is this

Connective Tissue: Blood

type of symmetry

asymmetrical

type of symmetry

radial

type of symmetry

pentaradial

type of symmetry

bilateral

what is this

Phylum:

Porifera (sponge)

• No symmetry

• Simple organisms

what is this

Phyla:

Cnidaris & Ctenophora (jellies, corals, and ctenophores)

• Radial symmetry

• Transparent

what is this

Phylum:

Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

• Flat

• Have eyespots

what is this

Phylum:

Annelida (Segmented worms)

• Segmented

• Visible Cheatea in some species

what is this

Phylum Mollusca: 

Class: Scaphopoda

what is this

Phylum Mollusca: 

Class: Gastropoda

• Spiral shell (absent in some groups)

• Mantle

what is this

Phylum Mollusca: 

Class: Cephalopoda

• Large head

• 8 feet

• Large eyes

what is this

Phylum Mollusca: 

Class: Polyplacopoda

• Hard shells (oval)

• Empty body cavity

what is this

Phylum Mollusca: 

Class: Bivalvia

• Dual shell

what is this

Phylum Arthropoda: 

Class: Chelicerata

• 8 legs

what is this

Phylum Arthropoda: 

Class: Crustacea

• Very clear cephalothorax

• # legs vary

what is this

Phylum Arthropoda: 

Class: Myriapoda

• Hard exoskeleton

• Many legs

what is this

Phylum Arthropoda: 

Class: Hexapoda

• Head, thorax, and abdomen clearly marked

• 6 legs

what is this

Phylum: Nematoda

• Under microscope

• Transparent 

what is this

Phylum: Echinodermata

• Pentaradial symmetry (only in this group) 

what is this

Phylum Chordata:

Subphylum: Cephalochordata (Lancelets) 

what is this

Phylum Chordata:

Subphylum: Urochordata (Tunicates)

what is this

Phylum Chordata:

Subphylum:Vertebrata

Infraphylum: Agnatha (Lampreys & Hagfishes)

• Round, toothed mouths

• No jaws

what is this

Subphylum:Vertebrata

Infraphylum: Gnathostomata 

Class: Chondrichthyes (Cartilogenous fish)

• Shark or ray if placed in practical

what is this

Subphylum:Vertebrata

Classes: Actinopterygii & Actinista (Ray and Lobe-finned fishes)

• Any non-shark fish (excluding marine mammals- whale) 

what is this

Subphylum:Vertebrata

Infraphylum: Tetrapoda

Class: Amphibia (Order Apoda) 

what is this

Subphylum:Vertebrata

Infraphylum: Tetrapoda

Class: Amphibia (Order Caudata) 

• Rounded heads

• Tail (always)

• Frog-like

what is this

Subphylum:Vertebrata

Infraphylum: Tetrapoda

Class: Amphibia (Order Anura) 

• Frogs and toads

what is this

Subphylum:Vertebrata

Infraphylum: Tetrapoda

Class: Amniota

Subclass: Reptilia

• Dry skin

• Scales visible

• Snakes- only members with no legs

what is this

Subphylum:Vertebrata

Infraphylum: Tetrapoda

Class: Amniota

Subclass: Reptilia

Infraclass: Aves

• Feathers