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ecology
the study of how organisms interact w|each other n their environment
There are diff levels of the biological hierarchy studied by ecologists n diff types of questions that might b studied by an ecologist at each level of study. organismal ecology:
the study of the subdisciplines of physiological, evolutionary, n behavioral ecology n how an organism’s structure, physiology, n behavior meet the challenges posed by its environment
population
a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area n interbreed, producing fertile offspring
population ecology
the study of the factors that affect population size n how n why it changes through time
community
all of the organisms that inhabit a particular area, an assemblage of populations of different species living close enough together for potential interaction
community ecology
the study of how interactions between species, such as predation and competition, affect community structure and organization
ecosystem
all the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact, one or more communities and the physical environment around them
ecosystem ecology
the study of energy flow and chemicals cycling between organisms and the environment
landscape
an area containing several different ecosystems linked by exchanges of energy, material, and organisms
landscape ecology
the study of the factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems
biosphere
the global ecosystem, the sum of all the planet’s ecosystems and landscapes
global ecology
the study of how the regional exchange of energy and material influences the functioning and distribution of organisms across the biosphere
What effect does ecology have on the world?
It integrates all areas of biological research and informs environmental decision making.
How does ecology relate to environmentalism?
Ecology provides scientific understanding that can inform decision making about environmental issues.
environmentalism
the advocacy for the environment
Silent Spring
a book by Rachel Carson that targeted the environmental issue of the use of pesticides and their effect on the environment
Rachel Carson
the author of Silent Spring that started the modern environmental movement
What limits the distribution of species?
Interactions between organisms and the environment
biogeography
the scientific study of the past and present geographic distribution of species
What four factors determine the distribution of organisms?
1. Ecological interactions throughout time
2. Evolutionary interactions throughout time
3. Dispersal
4. Habitat selection
dispersal
the movement of individuals or gametes away from their parent location that sometimes expands the geographic range of a population or species
habitat selection
the behavior of organisms or individuals not occupying all of their potential range and avoiding certain habitats, even when the habitats are suitable
There are different types of experiments and observations that help explain the distribution of species. List five examples of biotic factors.
1. Predation
2. Herbivory
3. Pollination
4. Food Resource
5. Parasites
Describe predation as a biotic factor that helps to explain the distribution of species.
Negative interactions with predators restrict the ability of some species to survive and reproduce.
Give an example of predation as a biotic factor that helps to explain the distribution of species.
Sea urchins limit the distribution of seaweed.
Describe herbivory as a biotic factor that helps to explain the distribution of species.
Negative interactions with herbivores restrict the ability of some species to survive and reproduce.
Give an example of herbivory as a biotic factor that explains the distributin of species.
Sea urchins limit the distribution of seaweed.
Describe pollination as a biotic factor that helps explains the distribution of species.
The presence or absence of pollinators can act as a biotic limitation
Describe food resources as a biotic factor that explains the distribution of species.
The presence of absence of food resources can act as a biotic limitation.
Describe parasites as a biotic factor that explains the distribution of species.
The presence or absence of parasites can act as a biotic limitation.
List five abiotic factors that influences living organisms.
1. Water
2. Oxygen
3. Light availability
4. Temperature
5. Salinity
Give an example of water as an abiotic factor that influences living organisms.
Terrestrial organisms face a nearly constant threat of desiccation
dessication
the process of drying out or removing moisture from something
Give an example of oxygen as an abiotic factor that influences living organisms.
Oxygen concentration can be particularly low in the deep ocean
Give an example of light availability as an abiotic factor that influences living organisms
Too little sunlight can limit the distribution of photosynthetic species
Give an example of temperature as an abiotic factor that influences living organisms
Cells may rupture if the water they contain freezed below zero degrees celsius
Give an example of salinity as an abiotic factor that influences living organisms.
The salt concentration of water in the environment affects the water balance of organisms through osmosis.
climate
the long-term prevailing weather conditions at a given place
What four abiotic factors are the components of climate?
1. Temperature
2. Precipitation
3. Sunlight
4. Wind
Earth’s climate patterns formed in certain ways. Explain how Earth’s curvature and axis of rotation influence the amount of sunlight reaching a given area, and how these factors influence the temperature and precipitation in that area.
Earth’s tilted axis of rotation and its annual passage around the sun causes strong seasonal cycles in middle to high latitudes. In addition to these global changes in day length, solar radiation, and temperature, the changing angle of the sun over the course of the year affects local environments.
Give examples of how Earth’s curvature and axis of rotation influences the amount of sunlight reaching a given area, and how these factors influence the temperature and precipitation in that area
The belts of wet and dry air on either side of the equator move slightly northward and southward with the changing angle of the sun, producing marked wet and dry seasons around twenty degrees north and twenty degrees south latitude, where many tropical shedding forests grow. In addition, seasonal changes in wind patterns alter ocean current, sometimes causing the upwelling of cold water from deep ocean layers. This nutrient-rich water stimulates the growth of surface-dwelling phytoplankton and the organisms that feed on them.
There are factors that affect climate on a smaller scale. Why is the Pacific Northwest so rainy?
Ocean currents influence climate along the coasts of continents by heating or cooling overlying air masses that pass across the land. Coastal regions are generally wetter than inland areas at the same latitude. The cool, misty climate produced by the cold Cali Current that flows southward along western North America supports a coniferous rainforest ecosystem along much of the continent’s Pacific coast and large redwood groves farther south. Conversely, the west coast of northern Europe has a mild climate because the Gulf Stream carries warm water from the equator to the North Atlantic.
Describe how large bodies of water influence air flow over land.
Ocean currents influence climate along the coasts of continents by heating or cooling overlying air masses that pass across the land. Coastal regions are generally wetter than inland areas at the same latitude.
Give examples of how large bodies of water influence air flow over land.
The cool, misty climate produced by the cold California Current that flows southward along western North America supports a coniferous rainforest ecosystem along much of the continent’s Pacific coast and large redwood groves farther south. Conversely, the west coast of northern Europe has a mild climate because of the Gulf Stream carrying warm water from the equator to the North Atlantic.
What causes the Mediterranean climate?
Because of the high specific heat of water, oceans and large lakes tend to moderate the climate of nearby land. During a hot day, when land is warmer than the water, air over the land heats up and rises, drawing a cold breeze from the water across the land. In contrast, because temperatures drop more quickly over land than over water at night, air over the now warmer water rises, drawing cooler air from the land back out over the water and replacing it with warmer air from offshore. However, this local moderation of climate can be limited to the coast. In regions such as southern California and southwestern Australia, cool, dry ocean breezes in summer are warmed when they contact the land, absorbing moisture and creating a hot, arid climate just a few kilometers inland. This climate pattern also occurs around the Mediterranean Sea.
Explain how the high specific heat of water influences how large bodies of water moderate climate.
Because of the high specific heat of water, oceans and large lakes tend to moderate the climate of nearby land. During a hot day, when land is warmer than the water, air over the land heats up and rises, drawing a cool breeze from the water across the land. In contrast, because temperature drops more quickly over land than over water at night, air over the new warmer water rises, drawing cooler air from the land back out over the water and replacing it with warmer air from offshore. However, this local moderation of climate can be limited to the coast. In certain regions, cool, dry ocean breezes in summer are warmed when they contact the land, absorbing moisture and creating a hot, arid climate just a few kilometers inland.
Give an example of how the high specific heat of water influences how large bodies of water moderate climate
In regions such as southern California and southwestern Australia, cool, dry ocean breezes in summer are warmed when they contact the land, absorbing moisture and creating a hot, arid climate just a few kilometers inland. This climate pattern also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea.
Explain the rain shadow effect.
Like large bodies of water, mountains influence air flow over land. When warm, moist air approaches a mountain, the air rises and cools, releasing moisture on the windward side of the peak. On the leeward side, cooler, dry air descends, absorbing moisture and producing a rain shadow. This leeward rain shadow determines where many deserts are found, including the Great Basin, the Mojave Desert, the Gobi Desert, and the small deserts found in the southwest corners of some Caribbean Islands.
Give an example of the rain shadow effect.
On the leeward side of a peak, cool, dry air descends, absorbing moisture and producing a rain shadow. This leeward rain shadow determines where many deserts are found, including the Great Basin, the Mojave Desert, the Gobi Desert, and the small deserts found in the southwest corners of some Caribbean Islands
What effect does elevation have an climate?
Mountains affect the amount of sunlight reaching an area and thus local temperature and rainfall.
Give an example of the effect elevation has on climate.
South-facing slopes in the Northern Hemisphere receive more sunlight than north facing slopes and are therefore warmer and drier.
Why is it said that hiking from Gatlinburg, Tennessee, at 393 meters of elevation in the Smoky Mountains region, to the top of Mount Leconte, at 2010 meters, is like traveling to Canada?
Every 1,000 meter increase in elevation produces an average temperature drop of about 6 degrees celsius, equivalent to that produced by an 880 kilometer increase in latitude. This is one reason that high-elevation communities at one latitude can be similar to those at lower elevations much farther from the equator.
Relate elevation and latitude.
Every 1,000 meter increase in elevation produces an average temperature drop of about 6 degrees celsius, equivalent to that produced by an 880 kilometer increase in latitude. This is one reason that high-elevation communities at one latitude can be similar to those at lower elevations much farther from the equator.
aquatic biome
a diverse and dynamic system that covers most of Earth
biome
any of the world’s major ecosystems types, often classified according to the predominant vegetation for terrestrial biomes and the physical environment for aquatic biomes
How are biomes characterized?
By adaptations of organisms in its particular environment
What is the largest marine biome?
Oceans
How much of Earth’s surface does oceans over?
75%
photic zone
the narrow top layer of an oceanor make, where light penetrates sufficiently for photosynthesis to occur
aphotic zone
the part of the ocean or lake beneath the photic zone, where light light does not penetrate sufficiently for photosynthesis to occur
Name two differences between the photic and aphotic zone.
1. The photic zone is at the top while the aphotic zone is beneath the photic zone.
2. The photic zone has more light concentration than the aphotic zone, which has little.
benthic zone
the bottom surface of an aquatic environment
pelagic zone
the open-water component of an aquatic biome
Distinguish between the benthic and pelagic zone.
The benthic is at the bottom while the pelagic zone is open-water.
oligotrophic lake
a nutrient poor and generally oxygen rich lake
eutrophic lake
a nutrient rich and generally oxygen depleted lake
Name three differences between oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes.
1. An oligotrophic lake tends to be nutrient poor while an eutrophic lake tends to be nutrient rich.
2. An oligotrophic lake tends to be rich in oxygen while an eutrophic lake tends to be oxygen depleted.
3. An oligotrophic lake tends to have less surface area relative to their depth than an eutrophic lake.
littoral zone
the shallow, well-lit water close to the shore where rooted and floating aquatic plants in lakes live
limnetic zone
the deep waters far from the shore that cannot supports rooted aquatic plants
Name three differences between the littoral and limnetic zone.
1. The littoral zone is shallow while the limnetic zone is open.
2. The littoral zone is close to the shore and the limnetic zone is far from the shore.
3. The littoral zone can support rooted plants while the limnetic zone cannot.
zooplankton
the most abundant heterotrophs in the oceanic pelagic zone biome that includes protists, worms, copepods, shrimp-like krill, jellies, and small larvae of invertebrates and fishes that gaze of photosynthetic plankton
phytoplankton
a surface-dwelling photosynthetic organism
Name three differences between zooplankton and phytoplankton.
1. Zooplankton are heterotrophs while phytoplankton are autotrophs.
2. Zooplankton are in the oceanic pelagic zone biome while phytoplankton are on the surface.
3. Zooplankton are not photosynthetic while phytoplankton are.
4. Zooplankton are small and they graze on phytoplankton.
neritic zone
the coastal zone
abyssal zone
the part of the ocean’s benthic zone between 2,000 and 6,000 meters deep
Distinguish between the neritic and abyssal zone.
The neritic zone is near the surface while the abyssal zone is where the ocean floor starts to flatten out.
What are the seven aquatic biomes?
1. Lake
2. Wetland
3. Stream
4. River
5. Estuary
6. Intertidal zone
7. Oceanic pelagic zone
lake
a standing body of water that covers thousands of square kilometers, an aquatic biome
What type of autotrophs typically live in a lake?
Rooted and floating aquatic plants
Where do heterotrophs typically live in a lake?
The limnetic zone
How do humans impact lakes?
They dump waste in them
wetland
a habitat that is flooded in water during at least some of the time and supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil
Describe the autotrophs in a wetland.
Plants produce a lot of organic matter and microbes and other organisms decompose a lot.
What heterotrophs typically live in a wetland?
Invertebrates and birds
How do humans impact wetlands?
They drain them
stream
an aquatic biome whose most prominent physical characteristic is the speed and volume of its flow
river
an aquatic biome whose most prominent physical characteristic is the speed and volume of its flow
Describe the typical autotrophs in streams and rivers.
They are rich in phytoplankton.
What are the typical heterotrophs in streams and rivers?
Invertebrates and fish.
How do humans impact streams and rivers?
They contribute to local, agricultural, and industrial pollution that degrade water quality and kill aquatic organisms
estuary
a transition area between river and sea
What are the typical autotrophs found in an estuary?
Saltmarsh grasses and algae
What are the typical heterotrophs found in an estuary?
Worms, oysters, crabs and fish
How do humans impact estuaries?
They pollute them.
intertidal zone
a zone periodically submerged and exposed by the tides, twice daily on most marine shores
What are the typical autotrophs found in an intertidal zone?
Marine algae
Describe the heterotrophs typically found in an intertidal zone.
Structural adaptations enable heterotrophs to attach to the hard surfaces
How do humans impact intertidal zones?
They pollute them with oil.
oceanic pelagic zone
a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents
What is the typical type of autotroph found in a oceanic pelagic zone?
Phytoplankton
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