AP Psychology Unit 4 Review

Associative Learning

Associative Learning

Connecting items/experiences together based on the order in which they occur.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others.

Latent Learning

Delayed learning; information is exposed but not displayed until needed

Social Learning

Learning through social interaction (e.g., body language imitation).

Insight Learning

Mentally working through details to solve a problem

Trial and Error Learning

Trying multiple solutions at random until one is successful.

Superstitious Behavior

Learning through accidental reinforcement.

John Garcia

Taste Aversion: Negative association with food due to past illness or pain.

Albert Bandura

Observational Learning: Bobo doll experiment (children imitate aggression).

Edward Tolman:

Latent Learning: Rats in mazes performed better if previously exposed.

Edward Thorndike

Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.

Trial and Error Learning: Cats in puzzle boxes.

Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning: Dogs salivating in response to a bell.

B.F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning: Behavior more likely with reinforcement, less likely with punishment.

Robert Rescorla

Cognitive Learning: Animals can be taught to expect certain outcomes.

John B. Watson

Behaviorism: Behaviors are the result of learning.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UR):

Natural response to the unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that elicits no response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS):

NS paired with US, eventually triggers a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR):

Learned response to the CS.

Acquisition

Associating NS with US to elicit a conditioned response.

Extinction

Diminishing of a conditioned response when US is no longer paired with CS.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished CR after a pause.

Stimulus Generalization

CR occurs to stimuli similar to the CS.

Stimulus Discrimination

Ability to differentiate between similar stimuli.

Higher-Order Conditioning (Second-Order):

New NS becomes the new CS without US present.

Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike)

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur.

B.F. Skinner's Experiment

Skinner Box (Operant Chamber): Lever press by rat resulted in a food reward.

Positive

Adding a stimulus

Negative

Removing a stimulus.

Positive ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior

Positive Punishment:

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of responses

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement after a set amount of time

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after a random number of responses.

Variable Interval

Reinforcement after a random amount of time

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivated by external rewards or to avoid punishment

Intrinsic Motivation:

Motivated by internal satisfaction.

Biological Factors

Genetic predisposition, adaptive responses, neural mirroring.

Psychological Factors

Previous experiences, generalizations, expectations, associations

Social and Cultural Influences

Culture, family, friends, peer groups, motivation

Rescorla-Wagner Model

conditioning occurred in the first group but not the second due to expectations.

Edward Tolman

• Cognitive Map: Mental layout of the environment.

• Latent Learning: Learning not noticeable until there’s a reason to demonstrate it

External Locus of Control

Outside factors determine fate/outcomes

Internal Locus of Control

Individual control over their own fate.

Problem-Focused Coping

Directly changing the stressor or interaction with it.

Emotion-Focused Coping:

Avoiding/ignoring the stressor and focusing on emotional needs.