AP Psychology Unit 4 Review
Associative Learning: Connecting items/experiences together based on the order in which they occur.
Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
Latent Learning: Delayed learning; information is exposed but not displayed until needed.
Social Learning: Learning through social interaction (e.g., body language imitation).
Insight Learning: Mentally working through details to solve a problem.
Trial and Error Learning: Trying multiple solutions at random until one is successful.
Superstitious Behavior: Learning through accidental reinforcement.
John Garcia:
Taste Aversion: Negative association with food due to past illness or pain.
Albert Bandura:
Observational Learning: Bobo doll experiment (children imitate aggression).
Edward Tolman:
Latent Learning: Rats in mazes performed better if previously exposed.
Edward Thorndike:
Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.
Trial and Error Learning: Cats in puzzle boxes.
Ivan Pavlov:
Classical Conditioning: Dogs salivating in response to a bell.
B.F. Skinner:
Operant Conditioning: Behavior more likely with reinforcement, less likely with punishment.
Robert Rescorla:
Cognitive Learning: Animals can be taught to expect certain outcomes.
John B. Watson:
Behaviorism: Behaviors are the result of learning.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural response to the unconditioned stimulus.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus that elicits no response.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): NS paired with US, eventually triggers a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS.
Before Conditioning:
US: Food → UR: Salivation
NS: Bell → No response
During Conditioning:
NS (Bell) + US (Food) → UR (Salivation)
After Conditioning:
CS (Bell) → CR (Salivation)
Acquisition: Associating NS with US to elicit a conditioned response.
Extinction: Diminishing of a conditioned response when US is no longer paired with CS.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished CR after a pause.
Stimulus Generalization: CR occurs to stimuli similar to the CS.
Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to differentiate between similar stimuli.
Higher-Order Conditioning (Second-Order): New NS becomes the new CS without US present.
Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike): Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur.
Skinner Box (Operant Chamber): Lever press by rat resulted in a food reward.
Positive: Adding a stimulus.
Negative: Removing a stimulus.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.
Example: Giving $50 for an 'A' grade.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior.
Example: Taking away chores for good grades.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
Example: Adding chores for bad grades.
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
Example: Taking away phone for bad grades.
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
Example: Free meal after five visits.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set amount of time.
Example: Employee of the Month.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a random number of responses.
Example: Slot machines.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement after a random amount of time.
Example: Secret shoppers.
Definition: Extrinsic rewards replace intrinsic motivation, reducing enjoyment.
Extrinsic Motivation: Motivated by external rewards or to avoid punishment.
Intrinsic Motivation: Motivated by internal satisfaction.
Biological Factors:
Genetic predisposition, adaptive responses, neural mirroring.
Psychological Factors:
Previous experiences, generalizations, expectations, associations.
Social and Cultural Influences:
Culture, family, friends, peer groups, motivation.
Preparedness: Biological predisposition to learn associations aiding survival.
Instinctive Drift: Reverting to biological patterns even after learning.
Rescorla-Wagner Model:
Conditioning occurred in the first group but not the second due to expectations.
Edward Tolman:
Cognitive Map: Mental layout of the environment.
Latent Learning: Learning not noticeable until there’s a reason to demonstrate it.
Social Learning: Learning through social interaction, observing, and imitating others.
Observational Learning: Learning by watching others receive reinforcements or punishments.
External Locus of Control: Outside factors determine fate/outcomes.
Internal Locus of Control: Individual control over their own fate.
Problem-Focused Coping: Directly changing the stressor or interaction with it.
Emotion-Focused Coping: Avoiding/ignoring the stressor and focusing on emotional needs.
Associative Learning: Connecting items/experiences together based on the order in which they occur.
Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
Latent Learning: Delayed learning; information is exposed but not displayed until needed.
Social Learning: Learning through social interaction (e.g., body language imitation).
Insight Learning: Mentally working through details to solve a problem.
Trial and Error Learning: Trying multiple solutions at random until one is successful.
Superstitious Behavior: Learning through accidental reinforcement.
John Garcia:
Taste Aversion: Negative association with food due to past illness or pain.
Albert Bandura:
Observational Learning: Bobo doll experiment (children imitate aggression).
Edward Tolman:
Latent Learning: Rats in mazes performed better if previously exposed.
Edward Thorndike:
Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.
Trial and Error Learning: Cats in puzzle boxes.
Ivan Pavlov:
Classical Conditioning: Dogs salivating in response to a bell.
B.F. Skinner:
Operant Conditioning: Behavior more likely with reinforcement, less likely with punishment.
Robert Rescorla:
Cognitive Learning: Animals can be taught to expect certain outcomes.
John B. Watson:
Behaviorism: Behaviors are the result of learning.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural response to the unconditioned stimulus.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus that elicits no response.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): NS paired with US, eventually triggers a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS.
Before Conditioning:
US: Food → UR: Salivation
NS: Bell → No response
During Conditioning:
NS (Bell) + US (Food) → UR (Salivation)
After Conditioning:
CS (Bell) → CR (Salivation)
Acquisition: Associating NS with US to elicit a conditioned response.
Extinction: Diminishing of a conditioned response when US is no longer paired with CS.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished CR after a pause.
Stimulus Generalization: CR occurs to stimuli similar to the CS.
Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to differentiate between similar stimuli.
Higher-Order Conditioning (Second-Order): New NS becomes the new CS without US present.
Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike): Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur.
Skinner Box (Operant Chamber): Lever press by rat resulted in a food reward.
Positive: Adding a stimulus.
Negative: Removing a stimulus.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.
Example: Giving $50 for an 'A' grade.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior.
Example: Taking away chores for good grades.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
Example: Adding chores for bad grades.
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
Example: Taking away phone for bad grades.
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
Example: Free meal after five visits.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set amount of time.
Example: Employee of the Month.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a random number of responses.
Example: Slot machines.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement after a random amount of time.
Example: Secret shoppers.
Definition: Extrinsic rewards replace intrinsic motivation, reducing enjoyment.
Extrinsic Motivation: Motivated by external rewards or to avoid punishment.
Intrinsic Motivation: Motivated by internal satisfaction.
Biological Factors:
Genetic predisposition, adaptive responses, neural mirroring.
Psychological Factors:
Previous experiences, generalizations, expectations, associations.
Social and Cultural Influences:
Culture, family, friends, peer groups, motivation.
Preparedness: Biological predisposition to learn associations aiding survival.
Instinctive Drift: Reverting to biological patterns even after learning.
Rescorla-Wagner Model:
Conditioning occurred in the first group but not the second due to expectations.
Edward Tolman:
Cognitive Map: Mental layout of the environment.
Latent Learning: Learning not noticeable until there’s a reason to demonstrate it.
Social Learning: Learning through social interaction, observing, and imitating others.
Observational Learning: Learning by watching others receive reinforcements or punishments.
External Locus of Control: Outside factors determine fate/outcomes.
Internal Locus of Control: Individual control over their own fate.
Problem-Focused Coping: Directly changing the stressor or interaction with it.
Emotion-Focused Coping: Avoiding/ignoring the stressor and focusing on emotional needs.