PSYC1030 Quiz 3

Goren, Sarty & Wu,

1975). New borns looking at faces

Newborns really enjoy looking at faces.

This is important because, in social interactions, it's all about looking at each other's faces.

They look at the paddle with a face on it rather than no face at all

Babies have preference for human speech or artificaIl sounnd?

Human speech

is really important because it's through human language that we connect

with other humans.

babies prefer

Look at faces

Hear voices

maternal language or accents

Sensitivity to emotional cues

develops in the first 6 months

very important in social situations

Field and colleagues found in 1982

that infants as young as 36 hours from

birth could differentiate positive emotions like happy from negative emotions like sad. They could also differentiate positive and negative expressions from surprised expressions

In addition, around five months of age, infants prefer to hear the sound that matches the

emotion of the face (Walker-Andrews, 1997).

For example, they prefer to hear a laughing sound that's matched with a happy face.

When infants develop a social smile

3 months of age

When infants start to respond to different types of emotions

6 months

Contagious crying

Young infants--particularly for those between three to six months of age--when

they see another infant cry, they start crying, too.

It's as if crying is contagious.

The arguments for contagious crying are

Empathy towards one another Hoffman 2000 simmer 1971

Hyper-reactive they are freaked out because the other is (Davidov, Zahn-Waxler, Roth-Hanania

& Knafo, 2013).

Edward Tronick Still Face experiment

Infant is happy when the mother is smiling at them playing together

The mother then makes a still face and the infant becomes visually distressed and unhappy

The mother then makes a happy face again and the baby acts as if nothing happened and is happy once more

Infants become more and more active in learning about the world

between 6-18 months of age

Joint attention

is where you try to get the attention of the other person so that you're looking at the same thing, and you can talk about it together. Infants can do this through gaze. They can also do this through pointing, which is really important because they can learn the names of the different objects that they're pointing at.

Social referencing is developed around

10-12 months

Social referencing

This is where infants suss out what's going on by looking at mum. When infants are exploring somewhere unfamiliar, they tend to look towards mum to see how she is reacting.

If mum looks happy... Okay, I'm fine to go and explore.

If mum looks a little fearful, then the infant retracts as well.

Social referencing in visual cliff paradigm

A paradigm that tests depth perception. When the mother looks afraid the baby almost never crosses the table

Scaffolding is learnt around

14 months

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is this concept where we build an infant's knowledge through teaching them

about something that's just a little bit more difficult than what they know.

Mental states

Desire

Thoughts

Belief

Knowledge

Cant grasp the concept of a mental state it can not be visualised like a table for infants to grasp the concept it takes a lot of time and scaffolding from their mother

Desire is more important than the other states because...

infant more about their desire than their thoughts or beliefs.

This relates to the concept of scaffolding, in that desire is probably one of the most

salient mental states that infants experience.

On a daily basis, a lot of their time is spent on trying to fulfill their desires...

I want that thing.

I want that toy.

I want my diaper changed.

I want to go to sleep.

Those things are really prominent in the infant's mind.

By labeling the infant's desire with words, it really helps them grasp this concept that's

already in their head, and get a better understanding of it.

It's important that mothers talk about infant's own mental states, so for example...

"Do YOU want that apple?"

If the infant doesn't understand what's going on in their own head, how are they to

understand what other people are thinking?

So, self first, then others.

Infants start to show a sense of self around

18 months - 48 months

Mirror or self-recognition Beulah Amsterdam 1972

They put a sticker on the nose of an infant and face them against a mirror. See if the infant reaches towards the mirror to take it off or trys to take it off their own face instead.

Telegraphic speech

two-word utterances or telegraphic speech just keeping the two main words together

Infants start to talk about thoughts at around

30 months / 2 and a half years

"I think cake is yummy"

"I think dog is cute"

Reaches back to what the mother really emphasises desire at an early age

How do we know when an infant has developed a concept of self?

Put the infant in front of a mirror with a mark on their face

Infants have a better understanding between themselves and other people

18 months of age

Repacholi and Gopnik in 1997

showed that infants actually have a basic understanding of other

people's desires.

In their experiment, Betty Repacholi and Alison Gopnik had two plates placed in front of the

infant.

One plate had crackers on it, and the other plate had broccoli.

The experimenter then sat next to the infant, and expressed to the infant that they don't

actually like crackers, but prefered broccoli instead.

The experimenter would put a piece of cracker in their mouth and say to the infant "YUCK,

crackers," showing their distaste for crackers, and then say, "YUM, broccoli, YUM", showing

the infant that they didn't like the crackers, but liked the broccoli (Repacholi & Gopnik,

1997).

Then afterwards, the experimenter placed their hands in the middle of the two plates and

asked the infant..., "Can I have some please?"

They didn't refer to any specific object, they just asked...

"Can I have some?"

Eighteen month-old infants reached out and gave the experimenter their preference.

Even if the infant themselves may have preferred the crackers themselves, they gave the broccoli

to the experimenter.

This suggests that 18 month-old infants have a fundamental understanding that their desires

may contradict from other people's desires.

At which age do infants start to acquire each internal mental state?

Infant's own thoughts and beliefs:

Approximately 30 months to 2.5 years

At which age do infants start to acquire each internal mental state? Other people's desires, thoughts and beliefs

Approximately 3 years+

At which age do infants start to acquire each internal mental state?

Infant's own desires:

Approximately 18 months

Infants start to engagae in prosocial behaviour

6-18 months

Infants show a helping behaviour around

18 months

Experiments that test prosocial behaviour

Someone is putting pegs along a clothes line and then drops the last one waits to see if the infant will help

Someone is carrying books over to a book shelf but it is closed see if the infant helps open the door for them

Infants at around 18 months in order to share need

explicit cues

"i only have one block"

"Can you please share with me"

Children at around the age of three and a half to four years start to _____ share

spontaneously share without being prompted

Comforting emerges at around...

24 months of age

Helping behaviour emerges at around...

14 months

Sharing WITH explicit cues emerges around

18 months

Children develop comforting later because...

Helping is easier because they can visualise someone dropping something for example

Comforting is hard because its difficult to visualise pain as it is an internal concept

Sharing behaviour WITHOUT explicit cues

Approximately 3.5 - 4 years

Infants Theory of mind develops at around...

4 years of age / 50 months

Infants start to develop contrastives...

3 years of age

Contrastives

refers to making statements that contrast each other.

This little girl might say something like, "I love princesses, but my brother doesn'tlove them."

This kind of language really suggests that children might be having quite a robust sense of self that is different from other people.

Visual perceptive taking test

In this experiment, the child sits on one side of the desk, and a puppet or an experimenter

on the other side of the desk.

There's three big mountains in the middle that basically obstruct the view of the child

from that of the puppet.

What you can do is, place something like a pink house on one end, and you can ask the

child...

"Does the puppet know what color the house is?"

If the child understands that the puppet can't see what they can see, then the child would

say, "No, the puppet does not know what color the house is."

If the child thinks everything they see is what the puppet sees, then they would say...

"Of course the puppet knows.

It's pink.

It's a pink house."

Three-year-olds are the ones that really struggle with this kind of task.

They would say something like...

"Yeah, of course the puppet sees everything I see."

Infants develop the understanding that other peoples vision is different to their own...

4 years is usually when they get a much better understanding of this

Hide and seek

Infants that haven't grasped the concept that people see different things to their own hide in places they can't see anyone, even if they are just covering their own face, or hiding underneath a blanket

Appearance reality task

For children under three years of age, they have this understanding that for example a

Band-Aid box should have Band-Aids inside.

But if they open the Band-Aid box and see that there are markers inside, they completely

forget that other people in the world, who haven't opened this Band-Aid box would not

know that there are markers inside.

Wimmer and Perner 1983 Flase belief test

In this test, children are presented with two characters: Sally in a grey dress, and

has a basket, Anne in a yellow top, a dark skirt, and has a box.

Sally puts a marble in the basket, and then she goes away.

While Sally is gone and not looking, Anne moves the marble into the box.

When Sally comes back, the question is...

Where will Sally look?

Where should she look?

Children around 42 months old would say that Sally would look in the box, while children

around 52 months old would say that Sally would look in the basket.

They have developed the understanding that just because you saw the object being moved,

it doesn't mean that the other person who didn't see it being moved would share that

same belief.

This is why it's called the false belief test.

The shift in belief differing between people happens between

3-6 years

To do the false belief test across cultures...

It needs to be specific to them

You could not do the marble test for a tribe with infants that has never seen marbles before. it would need to be done with something like nuts

Children who pass the false belief test earlier, in a school enviornment, tend to be...

Developing theory of mind can be both...

Positive and negative for children

Population of children who struggle to develop theory of mind are...

Autism spectrum disorder

Simon Baron-Cohen and his colleagues 1985

the three bars are normal 4 year olds, down syndrome, autism* (in that order)

As NEWBORNS, babies start to develop:

Preferences for social stimuli

At THREE (3) MONTHS, babies start to develop:

The ability to grasp emotions, Social smiling

At SIX (6) MONTHS, babies start to develop:

Joint attention

At 18 MONTHS, babies start to develop:

A concept of self, Their own desires

At 30 months, babies start to develop:

Talk about their own thoughts

At 36 months, babies start to develop:

Contrastive speech

At 50 months, babies start to develop:

Theory of mind

Developmental Pyschology

how people grow, change and adpat throughout their lifespan

Infancy

First 2 years of life

Why study infancy

expressive vocabulary between 16-30 months predicted grade 9 scores at age of 15

maximal neural and behavioural plasticity

Deaf infants who receive a cochlear implant before 12 months of age develop better, doing this after the second year doesnt work as well

Practical relevance

Kangaroo mother care - skin-to skin contact begun immediately after birth reduceas mortality and accelerates neurodevelopment in less healthy babies, svaes 150000 babies annually

Infancy - historical perspectives

Nature AND Nuture

Sensory systems

Vision

Hearing

-2 syllables - ba and pa

- Conditioned to respond "pa" increase sucking

- Present ba/pa pairs with varying interval (0ms to 80ms)

- Short intervals - no change in sucking

- Clear increase at categorical boundary (20ms - 40ms)

- Step change similar to adult speech perception

Touch

Taste and Smell

Timelines for senses

Early Motor Programs - Reflexes

Early Motor Programs - Voluntary

Emotion and Temperament

Temperament

Infancy to Adulthood Correlation

Studying babies

Studying babies Fantz 1960s

Physiological additions

Attachment

refers to a lifelong affectionate bond that develops between two

individuals.

Babies develop first attachment within the first months of life

Primary caregiver

Babies care about this person the most usually their mother and ferociously cares for them in their first few months of life

Dependancy Theory

Everybody turned to Freud in the late 1800s, and early 1900s, for his view of human nature.

Freud's view was that babies are born as basically helpless balls of biological needs.

The idea that the mother solves biological needs and provides biological satisfaction.

A practical example of this is orphanages.

Criticism is that if this was true the relationship would end once the baby became more dependant

People criticised this theory by calling it the cupboard love theory

Imprinting

An immediate connection made at birth. When ducks first saw Konrad (experimenter) they started following him around and mistook him for a parental figure.

This was then considered an alternative answer to dependancy theory

Attachment in rhesus monkeys

Harry Harlows study

isolated infant monkeys at birth and let them interact with monkey manakins instead. One with a bottle. One with no bottle but comfortable. They preferred to spend more time with the comfortable one.

The isolation was found to disrupt the psychological health all the way down to its biological functions of mating.

They found however that if you put isolated monkeys with juvenile monkeys their social ability improved.

Attachment theory

Bowlby

Found that the security is what babies get from their mother.

Much like a temprature gauge: when it is to hot the fan air con is turned on and when it is to cold the heater turns on. The mother is like this constantly keeping a stable environment for the child.

Similar to why kids always ask mum look at me mum watch "they want their mother to be aware and watching when they potentially approach danger

Critical period and attachment

Bowlby believed that if a child failed to form an attachment with a single caregiver

in their early years, it would lead to lifelong problems.

He proposed that there's a critical period during development.

If a particular stimulus has a profound effect, if it comes too early or too late outside

of the critical period, then it's not going to work.

Parents in North America and Europe have adopted many orphans from around the world due to political unrest. But humans never lose their capacity to develop love relationships

Dual motivations

Mary Ainsworth, who was the first student of Bowlby's, made a really important addition

to basic Attachment Theory which was this...

You have to have a balance.

She said there's actually dual motivations in children: exploration, which serves the

purpose of learning and equipping them for independent survival; and security.

They're motivated by these two things, and they're in balance.

Whenever there's danger, the security motivation is higher and the baby approaches the caregiver

or produces behaviors to get the caregiver to approach him.

When danger isn't present, then the exploration motivation is higher, and the baby goes out

and plays and does things for himself, you can see this any day of the week.

A new direction of attachment theory

Marry Ainsworth underwent a huge experiment and interviewed preganant mothers recruiting them for the study when they were born she had research assistants that all went and measured different factors seen in the ss attached.

Strange situation test

Marry Ainsworth used this to develop the data and test how much the different babies of the mother depend on their mother as a base when a mother and stranger leave the room and only the stranger returns first and then the mother after.

Patterns of attachment

ABC

A: Anxious Avoidant

B: Secure

C: Anxious Ambivalent

60% of the time infants responded with the B secure response and use their mother as their base.

20% Had the anxious avoidant pattern where the baby is not really using the mother as base and is mostly unresponsive to the changing environment

The remaining 20% were considered C Where when the mother leaves they completely freak out crying and even vomit and when the mother returns they approach her but her noticely displeased upset with her turning away or even hitting her

Enviornmental influences on patterns of attachment

Mothers of secure B babies were more likely to be sensitive approaching them as soon as they were upset etc

Mother of Anxious avoidant A babies were more likely to report disliking

contact with their infants, more likely to just sort of plunk their infants down in front

of—well, these days it would be probably a video—toys and things, and to just leave

them on their own.

Mother of Anxious ambivalant C were inconsistent

Cross-Cultural observations on patterns of attachment

when they started doing cross-cultural work.

What they found was that if you go to Northern Europe, especially North Germany, Scandinavia,

Denmark, places like that, there's quite a high proportion of anxious avoidant "A"

babies.

Here's a paper published by Grossmann and colleagues in 1980 about the number of children

considered as "secure" in Germany.

It was far fewer than those from the US (Grossman et., 1980).

And this seemed to have been driven by the high proportion of children who were categorised

as anxious avoidant.

This is because there were cultural norms like the belief that if your baby can sit up then they can pretty much be independent

A paper published by Takahashi in 1986, they started administering strange situation

tests and found a large proportion--like 32 percent of the babies there--were categorised

as anxious ambivalent "C" babies, while none were categorised as anxious avoidant

("A") babies. This is because during that time babies msotly slept with their mother so when they were removed from their mother it was monumental

Critical period

is a time in development when something has to happen, otherwise, development

won't proceed as normal.

There is no crirtcal period for attachment in human development

Is there a critical period for language development

Yes

What type of words can Koko express

Word segments like "Koko love", 'Food Koko", "Broke bad", "Hungry bad",

"Good this".

dipthongs

th, sh, ch. We put those together to make meaningful

words, which are then strung together to make meaningful utterances.

Phonetic distinctions

Small differences in a few letters that slightly differ and mean big differences such as bat and vat however in spain people would think someone that says bat and vat would be saying the same thing because they are not trained to here this phonetic distinction

Babies are immune to not hearing phonetic distinctions

A spanish baby would be able to tell the difference between vat and bat better than its parents or older siblings.

They are born with a universal ear that quickly is tuned to their respective culture

Motheres/Infant-directed speech

A way babies are spoken to like how you speak to a puppy. People naturally speak to babies in motheres register

Babies prefer being spoken to like this

It segments specch and helps babies to create word boundaries

What language can babies produce

Babbling

Babies are born making all different types of sounds. As they get closer to their first birthday the babbling becomes much more recognisable to the language that they will eventually speak.

Pointing is also another way they point at something to share an experience of what they are looking at