psych

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

empiricism

The view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment

structuralism

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function--how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

pseudo-psychology

Psychology that is not based on scientific facts or studies, that is more "common sense" in some cases

Wilhelm Wundt

Known as father of psychology. Created the first scientific laboratory. Used structural approach.

William James

"Stream of consciousness," created functionalism with others, wrote 'Principles of Psychology'

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

clinical psychology

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

counseling psychology

A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

basic research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

nature/nurture issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

phrenology

A now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness, are localized in specific regions of the brain

stimulus

Sensory input from the environment

consciousness

A person's subjective experience of the world and the mind

introspection

The subjective observation of one's own experience

natural selection

Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations

gestalt psychology

A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

cognitive psychology

A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity

psychological constructs

Used to talk about something we cannot see, touch or measure

barnum effect

Tendency to believe a general personality report

clinical psychologists

Largest group, help people with psychological problems but can't provide drugs

counseling psychologists

Treat people who have adjustment problems rather than serious mental disorders. Work often at universities.

school psychologists

Identify students with problems and help with placement of students

educational psychologists

Work on course planning and instructional methods

developmental psychologists

Study the changes that occur throughout a person's life span

personality psychologists

Identify characteristics or traits

social psychologists

Study people's behavior in social situations

experimental psychologists

Partake in basic research, research for its own sake

industrial and organizational psychologists

Study behavior of people and work, like those in organizations

environmental psychologists

Study how people's surroundings affect them

consumer psychologists

Study the behavior of shoppers to predict and explain their behavior

health psychologists

Study how behavior and mental aspects affect health

socrates

Said "know thyself" - the beginnings of introspection

introspection

To "look within"

john locke

Theorized that knowledge is not inborn but is learned from experiences

b.f. skinner

Created reinforcement theory; behaviorist approach

sigmund frued

Creator of psychoanalysis and one of the most influential men in psychology

john b watson

Founder of the behavioral approach to psychology

psychoanalysis

Emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and internal conflicts

confirmation bias

Tendency to attend to evidence that complements and confirms our beliefs or expectations while ignoring evidence that does not

behavioral perspective

Perspective focusing primarily on observable behavior to environmental stimuli and how it shapes one's actions and behavior. Contributions by John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B.F. Skinner.

biological perspective

Perspective focusing on physical aspects such as genetics and brain structures and how they affect one's behavior and personality.

cognitive perspective

Perspective focusing on how mental processes such as memory, thought, and problem solving are involved in acquiring knowledge. Contributions by Jean Piaget.

evolutionary perspective

Perspective focusing on how adaptive processes and natural selection develop one's behavior and traits, as well as their children's behaviors and traits. Contributions by David Buss and Charles Darwin's studies.

humanistic perspective

Perspective focusing on the human qualities of freedom, potential growth, and motivation and how they affect one's personality and behavior. Contributions by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

psychodynamic perspective

Perspective focusing on how both conscious (ego and superego) and unconscious (Id) drives affect behavior. Contributions by Sigmund Freud.

socio-cultural perspective

Perspective focusing on how personality and behavior vary across one's background culture and social situations.

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumption, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidences, and assesses conclusions

theory

an explanations using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

operational definition

a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables. (ex: memory may be defined as "number of words correctly recalled from a list").

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

population

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.

random sample

sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists; the basis for many superstitions

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experiment controls other relevant factors.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance of condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

hawthorne effect

tendency of some people to work harder and perform better when they are participants in an experiment. Individuals may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving from researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables.

experimental group

A subject or group of subjects in an experiment that is exposed to the factor or condition being tested.

control group

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment., In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

the experimental factor - in psychology, the behavior or mental process - that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

descriptive statistics

Statistics used to describe only the observed group or sample from which they were derived; summary statistics such as percent, averages, and measures of variability that are computed on a particular group of individuals.

inferential statistics

numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance (e.g. p-value)

mode

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

range

the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution.

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

APA ethical guidelines

these rules specify that researchers avoid procedures that might cause serious physical or mental harm to human subjects, protect confidentiality of the data, respect a subject's right to refuse at any time during the study; includes Informed Consent, Freedom to Withdraw, Debriefing, No Harm, and Confidentiality

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.

wording effects

when a specific word used in a question affects how respondents answer the question or the order of the questions

descriptive effects

the method used to observe and record behavior without manipulation (survey, case study, naturalistic observation)

p-value

The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance).

sample

items (often people) selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population

confounding variables

in an experiment, a variable, other than the independent variable, that could influence the dependent variable

debreifing

giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed; required by APA ethics guidelines

informed consent

agreement to participate in psychology research, after being informed of the dangers and benefits of the research

generalizability

the extent to which a study's findings can be reasonably assumed to apply to the study population (not just the sample); enhanced by having larger, random samples and large differences between (experimental and control) groups

social desirability bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself; a potential challenge in surveys involving self-report

sampling bias

A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

valitity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

histogram

A graph of vertical bars representing the frequency distribution of a set of data.

normal distribution

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

skewed distribution

A committee organized by a university or other research institution that approves, monitors, and reviews all research that involves human subjects. Its main purpose is to ensure compliance with ethics standards.

dendrites

rootlike parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body. make synaptic connections with other neurons.