History Final Identifications

An American Dilemma

An American Dilemma

Major study of American race relations funded by the Carnegie Foundation amid growing skepticism of racism in light of Nazi Germany.; Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal led study, which released report in 1944.; Claimed that segregation was contrary to a foundational American belief in equality.

Executive Order 9066 (1942)

Gave Secretary of War authority to declare certain areas military zones.; Secretary of War was given discretion to remove individuals from military zones if they were perceived as a threat, which FDR did when Western governors objected to Japanese voluntary migrating out of the military zones into their states.; Used as legal foundation for Japanese Interment.; Ruled constitutional in 1944 Supreme Court Case Korematsu V. The United States

Bracero Program

Agreement to bring in temporary workers from Mexico to work farms, when America was short on workers during the war.; Although the program gave extensive rights to Mexican guest workers, poor enforcement meant that immigrant labor was exploited.; In Texas, led to passage of Caucasian Race Equal-Privileges Resolution, which established that all Caucasians should have equal rights. Not stringently enforced. 

X-Article (1947)

Built on ideas in the "long telegram"; Article anonymously submitted to Foreign Affairs by the diplomat George Kennan.; Argued that because Russia was isolated and feared that it was culturally inferior, it was naturally inclined to be bellicose, and even more so under communism.; Argued that the U.S. would actively need to "contain" Russia's efforts to expand communism throughout the world.

Marshall Plan

First proposed in a speech by Secretary of state George Marshall at Harvard University.; Loaned 17 billion dollars to Western European nations over a period of four years to subsidize the reconstruction of European infrastructure.; Intended to prevent the spread of communism through Europe by restoring prosperity.; North Atlantic Treaty Organization; In 1949, the US signed a binding mutual defense pact with the nations of Western Europe, promising to intervene if any of them were subject to attack.; Although the US saw it as a defensive alliance, Russians saw it as an offensive alliance, since they had no immediate plans to invade. Hastened the deterioration of relations with Russia.

Federal Highway Act of 1956

Appropriated 25 billion dollars to build the interstate system, the largest public works programs in the country's history.; Encourage the development of suburbs.; Justified as a national defense measure.

Kitchen Debate

1959 at the American National Exhibit in Moscow; Suburban home with consumer goods was displayed as symbolizing American culture to a Russian audience.; Vice President Richard Nixon debated with Russian Premiere Nikita Khrushchev about the value of American consumer culture.

National Review

William Buckley Jr. founded National Review in 1955, which brought traditionalists, libertarians, and cold warriors into a conservative coalition against New Deal Liberalism and communism.

The Road to Serfdom

Written by Friedrich Hayek.; Argued that government planning of the economy required progressively more extensive bureaucratic control bypassing democratic processes of government.; Government planning would eventually lead to communism.

C. Wright Mills

Wrote the Power Elite (1956), which argued that the cold ware was being used in the US and Russia as to prop up military elites and marginalize common people. Believed that in both US and Soviet Union Cold War helped support a power elite that eroded popular power.; Wrote "letter to the New Left" (1960), which argued that ideology was still relevant, but students and intellectuals, rather than workers, were now the "real live agencies of historical change."; In 1948, President Truman desegregated the Army.; Truman administration issued report "To Secure these Rights," which called for eliminating federal funding to states that segregated schools.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

Yearlong boycott of busses in Montgomery, Alabama.; Led by Martin Luther King Jr., which resulted in his rising prominence and the formation of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference under his leadership.; Ended in 1956 when the Supreme Court in Browder V. Gayle concluded that segregation in the bus system was unconstitutional.

SNCC

SNCC Position Paper, Nov. 1964.; Written by Mary King and Casey Hayden.; Argued that gender discrimination was endemic throughout SNCC. Leadership roles went to men, women were assigned traditionally feminine roles like clerical work.; Stokely Carmichael joked in the ensuing discussion that the position of women in the SNCC "was prone."; Represents sexism in New Left Movements, that ultimately pushed younger generation of women into feminism.

Chicago Freedom Movement

In 1966 King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference led protests to end housing and employment discrimination in Chicago.; King and his supporters were violently attacked.; Illustrates the wider objectives of the black freedom movement and backlash to this agenda.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Banned discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion or national origin. Applied to all public accommodations including businesses, ending segregation.; Proposed by Kennedy in response to violence in Alabama.; Pushed through by LBJ arguing that it was necessary to fulfill Kennedy’s legacy.

Lester Maddox

Challenged the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in Heart of Atlanta Motel Inc. V. U.S., calling it an unconstitutional attack on private property.; Linked rhetoric of segregation to ideas of private property rights and personal freedom of choice.; Continued to run his chicken restaurant, Pickrick on segregated basis, against court order. Turned it into a store that sold right wing goods.; Elected Governor of GA in 1967.

Free Speech Movement

Developed out of the civil rights protests of UC Berkley students who had learned about civil disobedience during Freedom Summer in Mississippi.; Led by Mario Savio.; Fought to end restrictions on campus political activity.; Led to in loco parentis being overturned, the doctrine that a university should function as the parent when a student is away at school.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

Banned the use of literacy tests for voting registration and allowed for federal supervision of southern elections to prevent discrimination.

Bay of Pigs (1961)

Kennedy assisted Cuban rebels who staged a failed invasion attempting to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist regime.; Despite its failure, 76% of Americans approved of Kennedy after the invasion.; Encouraged Castro to arm himself with nuclear weapons, leading to the Cuban missile crisis.

Immigration Act of 1965

Overturned the Immigration Act of 1924 to create a system that did not discriminate on the basis of race.; Prioritized skills and family connections rather than nationality when considering who could immigrate.; Prioritizing immigrants who had family in America produced a major shift in immigration from Europe to Asia and Latin America.

American Indian Movement

Founded in Minneapolis in 1968.; Staged a series of occupations, including at Alcatraz and Wounded Knee, calling for return of tribal land or reform in tribal government. Used armed resistance in its occupations.

George Wallace

As Governor of Alabama had stood in front of the University of Alabama in 1963, to prevent black students from integrating the institution.; Ran in 1968 by appealing to opposition to integration and "law and order."; Emblematic of divisions within the Democratic Party that Nixon would exploit.

Church Committee

Founded after investigated reporter Seymour Hersh revealed that the CIA had been involved in illegal spying.; Congressional Committee led by Democrat Fran Church that investigated abuses of power by the CIA.; Concluded that the CIA had acted as if it was above the law, conducting illegal surveillance at home and assassination attempts abroad.; Concluded with the creation of a permeant Congressional Committee to oversee CIA activities.

Iran Hostage Crisis

In 1979, Iranians staged a religious revolution, in which the secular American ally, the Shah, was overturned.; Carter allowed the Shah to take refuge in the US.; In retaliation, Iranians attacked the US embassy and took 52 Americans captive, holding them from November 4, 1979 until January 20th, 1981.; Fostered the impression that Carter was a weak president, and that American global power was on the decline.

Laffer Curve

In 1974 Arthur Laffer argued to a group of Republicans, including Donald Rumsfeld and Dick Cheney, that tax cuts would actually increase government revenue.; The idea was popularized in the wake of Proposition 13 when Jude Wanniski wrote article on the subject for Public Interest.; Ronald Reagan used this idea to justify tax cuts, though George Bush called it “Voodoo Economics.”

Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981)

Cut taxes across the board and indexed taxes to inflation.; Indexing taxes to inflation prevented “bracket creep,” which slowly pushed Americans into higher tax rates.; Tax rates would never return to pre-Reagan levels.; The cartoon the right depicts LBJ standing over a nation with plenty to meet all its needs. The idea that the government easily had enough to meet all of its financial needs would end with the Economic Recovery Act of 1981.

Union Party

Formed in 1936 to challenge the New Deal.; Led by Father Coughlin, Francis Townsend, and Gerald Smith, who had assumed leadership of the "Share Our Wealth" movement after Huey Long's assassination.; Nominated Congressman William Lemke for President.; Roosevelt administration believed it could split the vote and co-opted moderate versions of its policies.

Revenue Act of 1935

The Revenue Act of 1935, 49 Stat. 1014 (Aug. 30, 1935), raised federal income tax on higher income levels, by introducing the "Wealth Tax". It was a progressive tax that took up to 75 percent of the highest incomes (over $1 million per year). The Congress separately also passed new taxes that were regressive, especially the Social Security tax. It was signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt over strong opposition from business, the rich, and conservatives from both parties. The 1935 Act also was popularly known at the time as the "Soak the Rich" tax. To solve the problem of tax evasion through loopholes, the Revenue Act of 1937 revised tax laws and regulations to increase the efficacy of the tax.

Social Security Act

Paid $10 per month to seniors, as opposed to the $200 that Townsend had argued for. Made to resemble an insurance or savings systems, rather than a welfare program.; Also sponsored unemployment insurance to cover people in the case of short-term loss of employment.

Congress of Industrial Organizations

Founded in 1935 as a more inclusive alternative to American Federation of Labor, with help of John Lewis and the United Mine Workers.; Unlike the AFL, organized unskilled workers and minorities.  Organized as industrial unions, with all members of a factory in the same union, rather than as craft unions, which divided workers up according to skill.; More politically active than the AFL, strongly supported Roosevelt and his shift toward the left.

Wagner Act

Also referred to as the National Labor Relations Act.; Replaced Section 7A of NRA, which established right to unionize.; Established federal regulation of labor, permitting workers to unionize if a majority of workers voted in favor of the union.; Banned employer intimidation of unions.; Helped facilitate mass unionization, won the support of workers.

Indian Reorganization Act

Under the leadership of Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier, the Indian Reorganization Act overturned the Dawes Act.; Resurrected tribal governments and reverted indigenous land to tribal ownership. Promoted Indian crafts to create economy that preserved indigenous culture.

Gavagan Bill

Amid growing southern skepticism of the New Deal, Northern house democrats voted for a bill to make lynching a federal crime.; Republican Senators supported a filibuster by Southern Democrats to block the bill in the Senate.; After the Gavagan Bill, Southern Democrats split from Northern Democrats and increasingly vote with Republicans.

Fair Labor Standards Act

Last major piece of New Deal legislation.; Reestablished many of the labor regulations of the NRA, like the forty-hour work week, bans on child labor, and minimum wages.; Opposed strongly by Southern congressmen, afraid that it would empower black laborers. Represented split of Southern congressmen from the New Deal.; Did not cover farm laborers or domestic servants, industries in which most southern blacks worked.

Klanbake

The Democratic National Convention was divided over whether to condemn the KKK. This culminated in a large KKK demonstration outside of Madison Square Garden in New York to celebrate the failure of an anti-KKK plank to pass the convention.; Divisions within the party between immigrants and the KKK prevented it from capitalizing on Teapot Dome Scandal or challenging Republican dominance over the government.; Convention was unable to decide between Catholic immigrant Al Smith or Klan affiliated William McAdoo, and ultimately picked a no-name candidate John Davis who appealed to no one.

National Origins Quota Act (1924)

Based on the quota plan designed by Senator William Dillingham of the Dillingham Commission.; Limited European immigrants to 150,000 per annum, with country quotas that reflected the percentage of each nationality's population in the US in 1890. Banned immigration altogether from non-white countries, except those in the Americas.; This dramatically restricted the number of immigrants coming to America and especially limited immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.

The Fundamentals

A series of 90 essays published by A. C. Dixon.; Argued that the Bible was free of errors and was not a metaphor, but was rather literal fact.; “World Christian Fundamentals Association” founded to promote these ideas.; Critics called people who believed in the fundamentals “fundamentalists.”

Feminine Mystique

Betty Freidan published.; Graduated from Smith College.; Published The Feminine Mystique in 1963.; Former writer for labor magazine. Found suburban lifestyle stifling and coined the term "the problem that has no name" to describe the discontent of affluent suburban housewives.; Helped found National Organization for Women (NOW).; Betty Friedan saw lesbians as a CIA operatives intended to discredit NOW. Branded them the "lavender menace" and expelled them from NOW in 1970. NOW, however reversed the decision in the following year.

Phyllis Schlafly

A veteran conservative activist, who had campaigned for Barry Goldwater in 1964.; Founded Stop ERA in 1972 to hinder the passage of the equal rights amendment.; Argued that equal rights meant that women would lose privileges, Tapped into discontent with feminism, including women who blamed feminism, for the fact that they now needed to work outside the home.; Her campaign was crucial in preventing the ratification of the ERA, even though 30 of the necessary 38 states had ratified it within a year of its almost unanimous passage by Congress.

Jerry Falwell

Began televangelist show the Old-time Gospel Hour in 1956.; Lynchburg, Virginia televangelist, who Founded the Lynchburg Christian Academy in 1967 and Liberty University in 1971 as a reaction to integration and secularization of public schools; Was brought into politics by Anita Bryan's "Save Our Children" campaign, Roe V. Wade, Engel V. Vitale, and IRS regulations that would have ended the tax exempt of segregated Christian Schools.; In 1979, helped found Moral Majority Inc., which registered four million evangelical voters, and made ending abortion a major part of the Republican Party platform.

Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981)

Cut taxes across the board and indexed taxes to inflation.; Indexing taxes to inflation prevented "bracket creep," which slowly pushed Americans into higher tax ratres.; Tax rates would never return to pre-Reagan levels.; The cartoon the right depicts LBJ standing over a nation with plenty to meet all its needs. The idea that the government easily had enough to meet all of its financial needs would end with the Economic Recovery Act of 1981.

PATCO (1980)

Air traffic controllers, who were public sector employees, went on strike to demand higher wages.; Reagan believed government employees shouldn’t be able to strike, especially in vital sectors like air traffic control.; Reagan fired all the striking workers and barred them from working in the industry again.; Although Reagan was personally ambivalent about unions, breaking the PATCO strike set a precedent in which strike breaking was considered increasingly acceptable, and rates of unionization declined.

Tax Reform Act (1986)

The secretary of Treasury shocked the president by informing him that in 1982 the president's personal secretary had paid more income taxes than General Electric, Boeing, General Dynamics, and 57 other big companies combined. Between 1981 and 1983, more than half of the nation's 250 largest corporations paid no income taxes for at least one year.; Reagan joined with Democrats to pass a bill that eliminated many special tax breaks and made a more uniform tax code. Eliminated special benefits for established industries that had lobbied for exemptions.