Anatomy: Exam 1

Describe the human body in anatomical position

Standing upright, head forward, palms forward, arms at side, thumbs pointing outwards, feet flat, toes pointing forward

Sagittal (parasagittal) plane

Median (midsagittal) plane

divides the midline into equal left and right parts

Frontal (coronal) plane

divides the body into anterior and posterior plane

Transverse (horizontal) plane

divides the body into inferior and superior

aka: the cross section

Posterior (dorsal)

towards the back

Anterior (ventral)

towards the front

Superior (cranial)

towards the head

inferior (caudal)

towards the feet

Medial

towards the midline

lateral

away from the midline

proximal

towards the root of attachment

distal

away from the root of attachment

superficial (external)

towards the surface of the body

deep (internal)

away from the surface of the body

flexion

decreasing the angle; think flexing

extension

increasing angle; think extending your arm out

lateral rotation

external rotation; supination

medial rotation

internal rotation; pronation

abduction

movement away from the midline

adduction

movement towards the midline; think about adding towards the body

General organization of the cell:

The cell contains the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm which contains cytosol and organelles, those organelles can be either membranous or non-membranous. Extracellular fluid surrounds the cell

active transport

 requires energy (ATP), movement against their concentration gradient, endocytosis and exocytosis 

passive transport

Passive transport: doesn’t require energy, movement down their concentration gradient, osmosis and facilitated diffusion (requires a carrier protein)

Difference between membranous and non-membranous organelles

 Membranous organelles do not have direct contact with the cytosol, whereas non-membranous organelles do have direct contact with the cytosol

Non-membranous organelles:

ribosomes, flagella, cilia, centrioles, microvilli, cytoskeleton

Membranous organelles

mitochondria, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes

Mitochondria

Produces ATP, the number of ATP produced is dependent on the cell’s energy demands

Nucleus

Control center for the cell, contains: enzymes, proteins, DNA, RNA, and Filaments

Endoplasmic Reticulum

synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins

Rough ER

contains ribosomes and synthesizes proteins

Smooth ER

no ribosomes and synthesizes carbohydrates and lipids

Golgi Apparatus

series of membranous sacs (cisternae) that give rise to lysosomes and secretory vesicles. Important for the synthesis and packaging of secretions (esp. proteins)

Lysosomes

clean out the cell, releases nutrients and expels waste products 

Cytoskeleton

gives the cell strength and flexibility

Microfilaments

mainly actin

anchors the cell membrane

forms dense network within the cell

Causes movement of cell when interacting with myosin

Microtubules

hollow tubes

give strength and rigidity to cells

Responsible for changing the shape of the cell

May anchor organelles to defend locations within the cell

Thick and Intermediate Filaments

Provide Strength

Stabilize position of organelles

Centrioles

direct movement of chromosomes during cell division

Pair of centrioles bound together = centrosome

Cilia

• hair-like projections from the cell’s surface

• 9 pairs of microtubules surrounding a central array

• beat and move substances along surface

Flagella/Flagellum

moves cell through surrounding fluid

Ribosomes

Manufacture Proteins

• Consists of two subunits (large and small)

• Can be free or fixed (attached to RER)

Microvilli

Small finger-like projections of cell membranes that increase surface area of plasma membrane exposed to extracellular environment

Tight Junctions

Block passage of water and other substance between cells

Desmosomes

strong junctions which resist stretching and twisting

Spot Desmosomes

attach one cell to another

Hemidesmosomes

Attach a cell to the basement membrane

Gap Junctions

forms narrow channels that allows for passage of small molecules between cells

Epithelial Tissue

includes epithelia, which covers surfaces, and glands which are secretory surfaces

Epithelium

an avascular sheet of cells that forms a surface, lining, or covering

• consists of tightly bound cells (little extracellular material)

• replaced continuously

Functions of Epithelium

• provides protection

• Controls permeability

• Provides sensations → detects changes in the environment and sends info to the nervous system

  • produces specialized secretions → glandular cells

Specializations of Epithelial Cells

has an apical (top) and basal (bottom) surface; they contain microvilli and cilia

Maintenance of integrity of epithelium

• attached to underlying basement membrane

• division by stem cells replaces epithelial cells constantly

Classification of Epithelial

based on the number of cell layers and shape of exposed cells at the surface of the epithelium

Simple cell layers

one layer of cells over basement membrane

Stratified cell layers

two or more layers of cells

Squamous epithelium

surface cells are thin and flat; has both simple and stratified

Cuboidal Epithelium

shape of surface cells are cubical

• simple cuboidal occur in regions of secretion and absorption

• stratified cuboidal: rare

Transitional Epithelium

permits stretching (only found in urinary system)

Columnar Epithelia

height is greater than width

Pseudostratified columnar

epithelium contains columnar cells (may have cilia) and mucus cells that appear stratified but are not

What are the 3 categories of connective tissue?

1. Connective Tissue Proper

2. Fluid Connective Tissue

3. Supporting Connective Tissue

Connective Tissue Proper

All Connective Tissue that contains varied cell populations and fiber types suspended in viscous ground substance

What are the two groups of cells in connective tissue?

1. Fixed Cells

2. Wandering Cells

Fixed Cells

Permanent residents and are involved in local maintenance, repair, and storage

Fibroblasts

most abundant, produce connective tissue fibers

Fixed Microphages

remove damaged cells or pathogens

Adipocytes

Store lipids

Mesenchymal Cells

stem cells that differentiate into other connective tissue cell types M

Melanocytes

pigment producing cells

Wandering cells

can migrate into and out of connective tissues for a variety of different functions

Free Macrophages

Large, m phagocytic cells

Mast Cells

Secrete histamine and heparin, stimulate local inflammation

Lymphocytes

• increase in number when their tissue damage

• become plasma cells when production of antibodies is required

Leukocytes (WBCs)

phagocytic cells that mobilize during injury or infection (neutrophils and eosinphils)

Varying Connective Tissue Fibers

• Collagen

• Reticular

• Elastic

Collagen Fibers

most common and strongest; protein subunit wound like a rope; makes them flexible and strong

Reticular Fibers

Thinner than collagen, form a flexible network

Elastic Fibers

contain elastin protein, can branch and have the ability to stretch and recoil

Ground Substance

ground substance + extracellular fiber = extracellular matrix

Types of Connective Tissue Proper

depends on proportions of cells and fibers and percent of ground substance

Mesenchyme

Embryonic→ gives rise to all other types of connective tissue

Loose Connective Tissue

Mostly viscous ground substance that absorbs shock

Types of Loose Connective Tissue

• Areolar Connective Tissue

• Adipose Tissue

• Reticular Tissue

Areolar Connective Tissue

Open framework with all types of cells

Cushions organs, Provides Mobile Support, Phagocytic Cells Provide Defense

Adipose Tissue

Fat → common under skin

Reticular Tissue

reticular fibers, macrophages and fibroblasts

Dense Connective Tissue

collagenous tissue → volume mainly fibers

Regular: collagen fibers are parallel; align along with stress

Irregular: fibers form interwoven meshwork

Fluid Connective Tissues

Collections of cells on a watery matrix

Supporting Connective Tissues

• Cartilage

• Bone

Types of Cartilage

• Hyaline

• Elastic

• Fibrocartilage

Bone Connective Tissue is made of what?

Collage fibers and calcium salts

What kinds of bone tissue are there?

spongy or compact

Mucous Membranes

Line passageways that communicate with exterior

• Usually moistened by mucous

• Contain areolar connective tissue called lamina propria

• Ex: Digestive and respiratory tract

Serous Membranes

Line internal cavities and are delicate, moist, and permeable

• Ex: Pleural, peritoneal, and pericardial cavities

Cutaneous Membrane

Membrane: Covers body surface

• Ex: Skin → Thick, waterproof, and usually dry

Synovial Membrane

Located within cavity of synovial joints → Produce synovial fluid, which

lubricates joints

Skeletal Muscle

Muscle: Long rope-like structures called muscle fibers

• Striated Muscle

• Under voluntary control

Cardiac Muscle

Found only in the heart

• Short, branched muscle fibers

• Striated but involuntary

• Contain intercalated discs

Smooth Muscle

Found in walls of blood vessels, hollow organs, etc.

• Short, tapered cells

• No striations, not voluntary contraction