Unit 1:

Characteristics of Life

Metabolism: the sum of all the chemical reactions in a cell (breaking down nutrients for energy)

Homeostasis: the process of maintaining a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment

Cells and Organization: The cell is the basic unit of structure and function; living beings are organized from the atomic level up

Growth and Development: Living things increase in size and complexity over time

Reproduction: The ability to produce offspring (passing of genetic information)

Response to Stimuli: Living organisms can detect and react to changes in their environment

Evolution: The ability of populations to change over time as environments change-genetic changes that provide an advantage are more likely to get passed on

Types of Bonds

ionic bonds: transfer or donate electrons

covalent bonds: share electrons

polar covalent: unequal sharing of electrons (pull)

nonpolar covalent: equal sharing of electrons (no pull)

Types of Compounds

organic compounds: generally contain carbon

inorganic compounds: generally do not contain carbon

Carbohydrates

CHO (1:2:1)

monomer: monosacharide

function: quick energy

Disaccharide: 2 monomers joined together

polysaccharide: Long chains of carbohydrates

Lipids (fats)

CHO (1:2:few) (have less oxygen than carbohydrates)

function: long-term energy storage and structure

monomer: fatty acids

fatty acids: can provide energy or structure

saturated fatty acid: usually solid at room temp, STRAIGHT, no double bonds

unsaturated fatty acid: at least one double bond, usually liquid at room temp, broken

lipid triglycerides: long-term energy

polar heads: hydrophilic (water-loving)

non-polar tails: hydrophobic (water-fearing)

Proteins

CHON (sometimes S)

function: cell-to-cell communication

monomer: amino acid

dehydration synthesis: the removal of water from a monomer to create a polymer

Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA)

CHONP

monomer: nucleotide

nucleotide RNA:

function: transmits genetic information

contain:

-ribose sugar

-adenine uracil guanine cytosine

-is single stranded

nucleotide DNA:

function: transmits and stores genetic information

contain:

-deoxyribose sugar

-adenine thymine cytosine guanine

-is double-stranded

viruses

Unit 2

the cell theory: All living things are made of cells, all cells come from pre-existing cells, the cell is the basic unit of life

do they have any membrane-bound organelles?

organelles: carry out a specific function to the cell

membrane: a structure that encloses a cell or parts of a cell and regulates what goes in and out of a cell

prokaryotic: no

eukaryotic: yes

prokaryotic: Simple cells that do not contain membrane-bound organelles, have cell membranes, ribosomes, and cytoplasm

eukaryotic: Contain membrane-bound organelles, that are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells, protists, fungi, plants, animals

what do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have in common?

• Plasma membranes:  boundary around a cell

• Nucleic acid: DNA, stores hereditary information for cell function

• Cytosol: Jelly-like material found inside the cell 

• Ribosomes:  machines that make proteins

fungi: mushrooms, mold, yeast, break down dead material, make bread, alcohol

The plasma membrane helps maintain a cell’s homeostasis

cholesterol: helps keep the membrane “fluid”

two types of transport

passive

-does not require atp

-diffusion

-facilitated diffusion

-osmosis

-high to low

active

-does require atp

-endocytosis

-exocytosis

-ion pumps

-low to high

osmosis: diffusion of water

types of solutions

hypertonic: more water outside the cell

hypotonic: more water inside the cell

isotonic: equal inside and out

DNA can be…

chromatin: unwound DNA, tall

chromosome: tightly packed DNA, small

sister chromatid:

haploid:

-1 copy of each chromosome

-humans 23

diploid:

-2 copies of each type of chromosome

-humans 46

2 centrioles: centrosome

CELL CYCLE

If cell cycle checkpoints do not occur what happens?

uncontrolled cell growth (cancer)

Unit 3

photosynthesis formula: 6H₂O+light+ 6CO₂ —> 6O₂ + C₆H₁₂O₆   

chloroplast: sight of photosynthesis in plants

Chlorophyll does not absorb yellow/green-it reflects them

thylakoid: flattened sacks stacked into a granum (thylakoid stacks)

light-dependent reaction

stroma: fluid-filled space outside thylakoid

light-independent reaction/ Calvin cycle

electron carriers: NADH and P, FADH and ₂

chemiosmosis: The diffusion of Hydrogen ions (protons) down a concentration gradient through a protein channel in the membrane.

1. light hits photosystem 2

2. water splits, oxygen emits

3. electrons go thought etc

4. ions get pumped into thylakoid

5. NADP+ receives 2 electrons to become NADPH

6. builds a concentration gradient

7. creates ATP

autotrophs: produce their food

heterotrophs: have to consume other things as food

/

only autotrophs undergo photosynthesis

both undergo cellular respiration

Cellular respiration formula: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ —→ 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP)

What is the purpose of fermentation?

Uses the products of glycolysis (NADH and pyruvate) to provide enough NAD⁺ for glycolysis to continue.

Unit 4

Hershey and Chase-1952

Bacteriophage:  virus that attacks bacteria

Rosalind Franklin-1951 

Excelled in preparing DNA and imaging it using X-ray diffraction

Watson and Crick

Credited with discovering DNA is a double helix

The elements in a nucleotide are held together by covalent bonds

Semi-conservative: new DNA molecules have one strand of parental DNA and one strand of new DNA

Leading strand:  continuous replication

Lagging strand:  discontinuous replication (leapfrog)

Helicase:  Enzyme that opens the DNA double helix by breaking the Hydrogen bonds

RNA primase:  adds short segments of RNA (called a primer) on the DNA

DNA polymerase:  adds nucleotides to the replicating strand 5’ to 3’
Exonuclease:  removes RNA

Ligase: can connect ends of DNA

Okazaki fragments: small pieces of DNA on the lagging strand

A certain stretch of a chromosome is called a gene

Transcription:  Synthesis of single-stranded messenger RNA (mRNA) that carries DNA information to the ribosome to make proteins.

Translation: Process where mRNA is ‘read’ 3 nucleotides at a time (codon) and turned into protein

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

-contain the anti codons

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

carries DNA information to the ribosome

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Ribosome is made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) plus protein

enzymes…

speed up reaction

lower activation

are reusable

have optimum temp, pH, etc.

denature (lose their shape and function)

what affects how enzymes work?

• Quantity

•  Temperature

• pH