Learning and Observational Learning Flashcards

Flashcards covering classical and instrumental conditioning, habituation, and observational learning based on lecture notes.

What is learning?

A relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge as a result of experience.

Give an example of reflexive behavior selected by evolution.

Eye-blinking, sucking and gripping in new-born humans.

Define habituation.

The decline in the tendency to respond to stimuli that have become familiar due to repeated exposure.

What is the key process in classical conditioning?

Associating events or stimuli.

Who is the psychologist most famously associated with Classical Conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov

In classical conditioning, what does NS stand for?

Neutral Stimulus

In classical conditioning, what does US stand for?

Unconditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, what does UR stand for?

Unconditioned Response

In classical conditioning, what does CS stand for?

Conditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, what does CR stand for?

Conditioned Response

Define classical conditioning.

A neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with a stimulus (US) that automatically elicits a particular response (UR); the previously neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that also elicits a similar response (CR).

Give an example of classical conditioning being used to treat an applied issue.

Bed wetting

What are Conditioned Emotional Responses?

When neutral stimuli associated with emotional events elicit emotional responses.

What is conditioned fear?

When a neutral stimuli is paired with a fearful event creating a fearful response to the neutral stimuli.

What is the compensatory-reaction hypothesis?

The UR and CR can be opposites; the body prepares itself for a drug and 'tilts' the other way.

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

The process by which a conditioned stimulus comes to produce a conditioned response.

Describe delayed (forward) conditioning.

The CS comes immediately before (and overlaps) with the US.

Describe trace (forward) conditioning.

The CS starts and finishes before the US.

Describe simultaneous conditioning.

The CS and the US start and end together.

Describe backward conditioning.

The CS begins after the US.

Define contingency in classical conditioning.

The CS must also be a reasonable predictor of the US.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

If the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, then the CR will gradually decrease.

What is spontaneous recovery?

After a period with no CS presentations, the CS may elicit the CR again.

Describe the behavior therapy application of flooding.

Fear elicited by a CS is eliminated by process of extinction.

What is stimulus generalization?

A conditioned response formed to one conditioned stimulus will occur to other, similar stimuli.

What is stimulus discrimination?

An organism does not respond to stimuli that are similar to the stimulus used in training.

Define blocking.

Conditioning does not occur if a good predictor of the US already exists.

Define higher-order conditioning.

Once a stimulus has become an effective CS for a certain CR, then that stimulus can be used to condition other stimuli.

What is sensory preconditioning?

Classical conditioning reveals the association already learnt between two events; learning occurs in the absence of UR.

What is taste aversion learning?

Associations between US & CS are more readily formed if they seem to belong together.

Who developed the law of effect?

E. Thorndike

Define the Law of Effect.

Responses which are accompanied by satisfaction to the animal will be more firmly connected with the situation

What is instrumental conditioning?

Concerns the probability or likelihood of a response changing as a function of its consequences. The subject emits the response in order to produce a reward.

Who is B.F. Skinner?

An American psychologist and central figure in the area of psychology known as Behaviourism.

Why is instrumental conditioning also called operant conditioning?

The response operates on the environment (produces an effect).

Define positive reinforcement

Adding a stimulus or event contingent upon a response increases that behaviour.

Define negative reinforcement.

Removing a stimulus or event contingent upon a response increases that behaviour.

Define positive punishment.

Adding a stimulus or event contingent upon a response decreases that behaviour.

Define negative punishment.

Removing a stimulus or event contingent upon a response decreases that behaviour.

What are primary reinforcers or punishers?

They seem inherently reinforcing (e.g., food) or punishing (pain).

What is a schedule of reinforcement?

A specific pattern of presenting reinforcers over time.

Describe continuous reinforcement (CRF).

Every instance of a response is reinforced.

Give the two classifications of partial (or intermittent) reinforcement

Ratio and Interval

Describe a fixed-ratio schedule.

The reinforcer is given after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses.

Describe a variable-ratio schedule.

The reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses. The number of non-reinforced responses varies around a predetermined average.

Describe a fixed-interval schedule.

The reinforcer is given for the first response after a fixed period of time has elapsed.

Describe a variable-interval schedule.

The reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. The interval lengths vary around a predetermined average.

What is the partial-reinforcement extinction effect?

Partial reinforcement schedules provide greater resistance to extinction.

Describe some of the side-effects of extinction.

Extinction bursts of responses, extinction induced aggression, increase in response topography.

What is Premack's Principle?

Behaviour is reinforced when it is followed by higher probability behaviours.

What is stimulus control in instrumental conditioning?

Antecedent stimuli control (cue, signal) instrumental behaviour.

What is stimulus generalization and discrimination?

Extent that stimulus dimensions control behaviour; effects of reinforcement and discrimination training.

What did Herrnstein & DeVilliers (1980) research?

If pigeons can learn the concept of 'fish'.

What did Breland & Breland (1961) research and find?

Animal trainers using operant conditioning. Found that after conditioning to a specific response, behaviour 'drifted' to examples of instinctive behaviour related to food gathering.

What are species-specific defense reactions?

Fleeing and freezing dominant responses for rats in defensive situations.

Describe latent learning.

Learning from experience when there appears no obvious reinforcement or punishment for the specific behaviour.

Define Observational learning.

Occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others' behaviour (models).

what are the groups used in the Animal Behavior, 33, 892-896 experiment?

Group NM (no model), Group BI (blind imitation), Group LE (local enhancement), Group OL (observational learning).

How can fear of snakes be formed by observation?

By videotaping a monkey displaying fear to boa constrictor, and no-fear to artificial flowers.

The Bandura et al. (1963, 1965) researches have implications for…

Modelling aggression (e.g., TV).

What are the four key processes for observational learning?

Attention, Retention, Production, Motivation

In observational learning, what makes a person choose a model effectively?

1. Model's similarity to the observer, 2. Model's competence, 3. Model's prestige, 4. Observer's previous experience with model, 5. Multiple models

What are the three difficulties with studying complex cognition in animals?

Overcoming anthropocentricity, defining cognitive processes, Determining quantitative or qualitative differences, problem of 'Clever Hans'.

What are the requirements for communication to be considered a language?

Learning a set of abstract or arbitrary symbols, using these symbols to express thoughts or to indicate objects and events that may or may not be present, learning rules associated with the order of these symbols (syntax), using syntax to generate different meaningful sentences.

Why is chimpanzee anatomy unsuited for human speech?

Teeth are upright, evenly spaced and touch each other, mouth is relatively small, can be open and shut rapidly, lip muscles are more highly developed, tongue is thick, muscular, and highly mobile, and can restrict the air flow in a number of ways.