Period 3: Age of Revolutions to World War I: (1815–1914)

Novalis

In 1799, he wrote, “*Catholicism is almost played out. The old papacy is laid in the tomb, and Rome for the second time has become a ruin*.”

Orthodox

In Russia, the ____ clergy remained a bulwark of the reactionary policies of the state.

Inquisition

In Spain, the ____ was once again allowed to operate following its disappearance during the Napoleonic domination of Spain.

Restoration period

A highly ideological period in which ideas inspired either from support or commendation of the French Revolution played a role in whether one was committed to the restored order that emerged after 1815.

Restoration period

This era is also known as the “age of -isms.”

*Reflections on the Revolution in France*

Modern conservatism is rooted in the writings of *Edmund Burke* whose *________* was widely read throughout Europe.

Joseph de Maistre

Reactionary conservatism appeared in the writings of such men as ________.

Reactionary conservatism

_______ appeared in the writings of such men as Joseph de Maistre.

Joseph de Maistre

He’s an émigré during the French Revolution.

He advocated that monarchs should be extremely stern with those who advocated even the slightest degree of political reform and that the “first servant of the crown should be the executioner.”

Nationalism

It is based on the idea that all people’s identities are defined by their connection with a nation and that it is to this nation that they owe their primary loyalty as opposed to their king or local lord.

national conscription

Developments like ____________, the calling of all young men for military service, helped create the idea of a citizen whose primary loyalty lies not to a village or province but to the nation instead.

Grimm brothers

Writers such as the _____ recorded old German folk tales to reveal a traditional German national spirit that was part of a common past, whether one lived in Bavaria, Saxony, or any of the other German states.

liberalism

Early 19th-century nationalism was tied to _______ because many nationalists wanted political equality and human freedom to seve as the bedrock for the new state.

Enlightenment

The foundation of liberalism can be found in the writings of the philosophers of the ______

Classical School

School formed by the early liberal economists.

An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

Adam Smith published his most important work — *______________* (1776).

Mercantilism

\: Held that nations’ wealth could be measured only in gold reserves and that foreign trade would necessarily hurt one side or the other.

laissez-faire

Government price-fixing was unnecessary and counterproductive. They should follow a ___ policy and let individual businesses set their own prices and production levels.

Economics

It is sometimes referred to as “the dismal science.”

Essay on Population

Thomas Maltus argued in his *________* that the population was growing at a rate that would eventually outstrip the food supply.

David Ricardo

________ asserted that the only way for factory owners to gain a competitive advantage was to offer lower wages, resulting in a steady downward spiral in their earnings — the Iron Law of Wages.

Iron Law of Wages

This pleased factory owners because their thriftiness could be presented as if it were actually essential for the public good.

John Stuart Mill

He began as a disciple of Jeremy Bentham — who had provided a justification for an expanded role of government by suggesting that governments should seek to provide “*the greatest happiness for the greatest number*.”

Principles of Political Economy

Bentham’s utilitarian views were taken further by Mill, who wrote in his *________* that it may be necessary for the state to intervene and help workers achieve economic justice.

*On Liberty*

Mill’s most famous work, *_______*, was a clarion call for personal freedom.

Harriet Taylor

Mill was greatly influenced by the feminist thought of his wife, _______.

The Subjection of Women

Inspired by Harriet Taylor, he wrote *________*, arguing in favor of granting full equality to women.

Utopian Socialists

A phrase coined by Karl Marx — he viewed and felt they offered non-scientific, unrealistic solutions to the problems of modern society.

Utopian Socialists

They believed that expansive possibilities were available to mankind and that poor environments corrupted human nature.

They also believed that capitalism overemphasized production, underemphasized distribution, and possessed other serious flaws.

Henri de Saint-Simon

He argued that society needed to be organized on a scientific basis.

Charles Fourier

He created a blueprint for a cooperative community.

Fourier’s blueprint

It consisted of a self-contained group of precisely 1,620 people living oa 5,000 acres of land.

Robert Owen

He blamed the environment for man’s corruption, and in response built New Lanark, a mill town in Scotland, where workers were housed decently and children received an education.

Restoration

Refers to the events in France when the Bourbons were restored to the throne following the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo.

Charter of 1814

A hastily written constitution—that contained many of the freedoms from the revolutionary period.

Duke de Berry

In 1820, the son of the younger brother of Louis, ___, was assassinated.

Ultra Loyalists

People who wanted to see the revival of absolute monarchy.

Ultra Loyalists

They used the assassination to pressure the king to clamp down on the press and to give more rights to the aristocracy.

political repression

In 1824, _____ increased after the death of Louis XVIII.

Law of Sacrilege

Charles V introduced a _____, which ruled the death as the penalty for any attack on the Church.

Polignac

In 1829, Charles appointed the Prince of ____ as his chief minister, who was disliked for being an ultra-royalist.

July Ordinances

Polignac issued _____, which dissolved the newly elected assembly, took away the right to vote from the upper bourgeoisie, and imposed rigid censorship.

July Revolution (1830)

It sparked revolutions throughout Europe, and ended with the crowning of Louis Phillipe and the creation of the bourgeois, or July monarchy.

King Ferdinand VII

He had been restored to the throne following the collapse of French control in 1814.

Cortés

Once restored to his throne, Ferdinand dissolved the ____ and persecuted those liberals who had drawn up the constitution.

Naples

A more serious revolt broke out in ____, a revolt that Metternich labeled as the “greatest crisis” of his career.

Troppau Protocol

Stated that the great European powers had the right to intervene in revolutionary situations.

Eastern despotism

Western European liberals looked to the Greek revolt of 1821 to free the “birthplace of democracy” from “____.”

Lord Byron

He sent his own money to refit the Greek fleet and died amidst the struggle in Greece.

Ottoman Empire

the Sick Man of Europe.

New Serbia

It was a small kingdom the size of South Carolina, located north of Greece on the Austro-Hungarian Empire's southern border.

World War I

The independent Serbian state strongly promoted nationalism in the Balkan regions of Austria, which ultimately led to the ethnic conflicts and revolutionary movements that started ______.

Decembrist revolt

Revolt that broke out because they wanted to support Constantine.

iron fist

Nicholas I ruled with an _________, making certain to stamp out any additional reform movements within his vast empire.

Peterloo Massacre

Soldiers on hand shot 11 members of the crowd during the meeting.

Six Acts

Passed by the Parliament which banned demonstrations and imposed censorship.

Combination Acts

They banned union activity.

Poor Law of 1834

It forced the destitute to enter into workhouses where conditions were purposefully miserable to discourage people from seeking assistance.

slavery

In 1833, ____ was banned in the British Empire.

Factory Act of 1833

It reduced the number of hours that children could work in factories and established government inspectors to ensure adequate working conditions.

Corn Laws

The 1846 elimination of the _____ — which had imposed high tariffs on imported grain to support domestic growers.

King Ferdinand II

On January 12, 1848, there was a rebellion in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies against _____

Emperor Francis Joseph

He relied heavily on military force to subdue all forms of liberalism and nationalism.

Magyars, Slavs, Italians, and Germans would have to wait to see nationalist reforms realized.

Hungry Forties

The terrible decade for agriculture during the 1840s.

potato famine

The Irish experienced the most terrible conditions, with the Irish ______ of 1846 leading to the death of one million individuals and the emigration of an additional million out of Ireland.

François Guizot

Louis Phillipe’s chief minister.

He believed that France had evolved politically as far as it should and that everyone who resented their lack of political rights should simply “get rich.”

Louis Blanc

A socialist journalist that led the radicals.

He spoke of the need for fundamental social and economic change.

His supporters successfully pressured the provisional government to set up **national workshops** to provide jobs for the unemployed.

national workshops

Louis Blanc’s supporters successfully pressured the provisional government to set up _________ to provide jobs for the unemployed.

moderate republicans

Outside of Paris, the nation was more conservative, as seen by the national assembly election held on April 23 — elected an assembly made up primarily of ___________.

workers’ revolt

In May, anger over the election results led to a ________ in Paris that was quickly put down.

June Days

The termination of the workshops wherein a violent class struggle in the streets of Paris in which 10,000 people died.

French Second Republic

In November, felt confident enough to create the ___________, headed by a president who would be elected by a universal adult-male body of voters and who would not be responsible to the legislature.

Louis Napoleon

The first elected president from the election in December, a nephew of the Emperor.

He was able to capitalize on the appeal of his name and made vague promises to aid the embittered workers.

He created a rather conservative government.

Frederick William IV

In Prussia, _______ (r. 1840–1861) had promised to promote moderate reform for many years, but he never implemented any changes.

Lajos Kossuth

In Hungary, _________ demanded a constitution that would provide for responsible government for Hungary.

Grossedeutsch plan

Those who favored the _______ wanted to see all German lands, united under German rule.

Kleindeutsch

__________ supporters felt that the more realistic solution would be to include only Prussia and the smaller German states.

William IV

The delegates settled on the Kleindeutsch, and they offered the German Imperial throne to ________, the King of Prussia.

He did not want a “crown picked up from the gutter” and declined the offer.

Frankfurt Parliament

On May 18, elected representatives from all the German states gathered in Frankfurt to participate in what they thought was going to be the birth of a nation.

Charles Albert

the ruler of the *Kingdom of Sardinia*, took up the banner of Italian nationalists and bombarded Lombardy, only to be defeated by the Austrians.

Chartism

Centered on the belief that the problems of the working class could be corrected by changes in the political organization of the country.

Industrial Revolution

Historians had formerly placed the beginning of the ________ at 1760, when a group of new inventors appeared from nowhere and began to develop factories, bringing an end to the domestic system of production that had guided manufacturing since the early modern period.

Great Britain

_______ was the first European nation to begin the process of industrialization.

population size

Britain’s increased ___________ produced not only a large body of potential low-wage workers for the factories but also a steady supply of consumers.

Jethro Tull

The Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century, initiated by men such as ______— introduced scientific farming to Great Britain.

Crop rotation

______ increased crop yield and boosted turnips and beets, which could feed more animals in the winter.

manufacturing industries

As a result of the Agricultural Revolution and the rise of cottage industries, England was already involved in ______________.

Enclosure Acts

It forced small-scale farmers into urban areas, making larger farms more efficient and providing low-paid factory labor.

overseas trade

It provided the nation with the world’s largest merchant marine.

Transportation

____ within Great Britain was enhanced by the fact that the entire nation lies within close proximity to the sea.

coal and iron

Great Britain’s two critical natural resources of the Early Industrial Revolution: ___________

John Kay

In 1733, he invented the flying shuttle, which increased the speed at which weavers could make cloth.

James Hargreaves

By 1765, he solved Kay’s problem, by inventing the spinning jenny.

water frame

Richard Arkwright’s invention of the _____ marked the development of the Industrial revolution.

Labor-saving

______ was useful because British cloth manufacturing was constrained by labor supply.

James Watt

He studied the steam pump and adapted it for use in industry.

His invention was the first true steam engine.

He also invented an engine that turned a wheel. This made factories independent of waterpower.

Abraham Darby

He discovered a means of smelting iron using coal.

Liverpool and Manchester

The first passenger railroad traveled between ________ in 1830.

Zollverein

A customs union that abolished tariffs between the German states.

Cholera

____ killed tens of thousands in early 19th-century cities because animal and human feces contaminated the water supply.