Unit 5 AP Psych Key Terms

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88 Terms

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memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

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encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

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storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

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parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

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sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

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long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

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working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

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effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection, memories that do not rely upon conscious recall activities

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iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

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flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

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recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

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priming

the idea that exposure to one stimulus may influence a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention.

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serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

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proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

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Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

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deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

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cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

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convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

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divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative)

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Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

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heuristics

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgment and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but more error-prone

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insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

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representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

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avaliability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

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Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

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belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

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language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

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phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

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Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

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grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

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babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

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one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

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two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

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telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks —"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

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aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

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Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

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Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

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linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

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intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

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intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

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Charles Spearman

creator of "g-factor", or general intelligence, concept

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general intelligence

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

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factor analysis

a statistical method used to describe variability among observed variables in terms of fewer unobserved variables called factors.

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savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

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Howard Gardner

Theory of multiple intelligences

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GRIT

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

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Robert Sternberg

known for his intelligence theory, which states that there are three aspects to intelligence. These are creative, analytical, and practical intelligence.

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emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

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Francis Galton

interested in link between heredity and intelligence; founder of the eugenics movement

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Alfred Binet

1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: general IQ tests, designed test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French)

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mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

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Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.

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intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

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Louis Terman

altered Binet's IQ test, calling it the Stanford-Binet

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achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

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aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance;

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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

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standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

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normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

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Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

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Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

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content validity

The extent to which a test accurately assesses the entire range of abilities it is designed to measure

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predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

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cohort

a group of people from a given time period

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crystillized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

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fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

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intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

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Down Syndrome

a condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

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Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

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stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype