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What is a system?
A collection of interacting parts/components/actors, in which the interactions result in system-level properties and behaviors not attributable to the sum of individual parts
What isn’t a system?
conglomeration - ex. sand scattered in a road
What is an open system?
interact with the environment, and can be changed by the environment
What is a closed system?
does not interact with the environment and does not have any reactionary behavior
Are closed vs open systems binary? If not, what are they?
No, they exist in a spectrum
What is the spectrum of closed vs open systems?
Fully open, partially open, and closed
What is a hard system?
a system constructed of high-integrity components and is predictable
What is a soft system?
a system constructed by a high variety of changes and unpredictable behaviors
Define worldviews
the perceptions influenced by social factors
What are the five things that make systems complex?
The number of parts
The number of connections
Dynamic relationships between parts
Non-linear interactions
Varying responses
Define perceived complexity?
how stakeholders see a system
What does the term complicated mean?
folded, able to be taken apart, predictable
What does the term complex mean?
woven together, unable to be taken apart, unpredictable
Define emergence
properties of the system that are caused by the interactions and relationships between elements rather than by the elements themselves
What is weak emergence?
Behavior of the system that can be explained or predict
What is strong emergence?
Behavior of the system that is more difficult to explain or predict
What is a holacracy?
form of organization that distributes authority and decision-making through a network of self-organized teams that are bound together with a shared purpose and common set of goals and rules.
What are the three classifications of system problems?
tame, messy, and wicked
What are tame system problems?
can be defined and solved. They have a correct solution
What are messy system problems?
The most common type. Poorly defined and do not have a single correct solution
What are wicked system problems?
always involve a loser and a winner. Problems that cannot be solved.
Define system purpose
What a system does
Define system function
How a system delivers its purpose
True or false, all systems have inputs and outputs?
True
What are inputs?
processed through he system and leave the system in a changed state
What are resources?
consumed by the function of the system
What are controls?
set expectations, standards or requirements a system should fulfill
What are outputs?
produced by the system in line with its function and its purpose
What is efficency?
the resources consumed to produce the outputs
What is effectiveness?
the extent to which the output fulfills the specification defined by the controls
What is efficacy?
the potential performance of the system, lab setting
What are stocks?
measures of quantity at a given time
What are flows?
measures of quantity over time
What is entropy?
a metaphor for ageing, skill fade, or obsolescence
What is Homeostasis?
description of a system that maintains its ‘steady state’ or a system that is in a ‘dynamic equilibrium’
Who was James Grier Miller, and what theory did he create?
American psychologist, psychiatrist. He created the Living Systems Theory
What was the purpose of the Living Systems Theory? And what was its core?
A general theory about the existence of all living systems. All nature is a continuum and the endless complexity of life can be organized into patterns that repeat themselves at each level of system
How many nested hierarchical levels did Miller organize living systems into? And what are they? (Think COOGOCSS)
Cells
Organ
Organism
Group
Organization
Community
Society
Supranational
According to Miller, into what four dimensions could the eight levels of systems be organized to?
matter/energy, information, space, and time
What is a concrete system?
system that exists in reality and is composed of tangible objects
What is a conceptual system?
a system that exists in reality and is composed of intangible objects
What is an abstract system?
a system composed of tangible and/or intangible objects, but does not exist in reality, only as an idea.
Who was Anthony Stafford Beer? What was his theory?
British consultant and academic. His theory is on cybernetics
What is Cybernetics according to Beer?
the study of control and communication systems in animals and machines
What is management cybernetics?
the application of cybernetics to management and organizations
How does Beer define a viable system?
a system that can self-produce
In wanting to understand what makes a system viable, what model did Beer create?
Viable Systems Model (VSM)
According to Beer any viable system comprises of how many systems, and what do each do?
Operational part of a system
Enables coordination between system 1’s
Controls the rules, resources, roles, and responsibilities of system 1’s
Monitors the environment
Sets direction and policy for the whole system
Into what 3 things does Beer characterize performance?
actuality, capability, and potentiality
What is actuality?
What the system is able to do now with existing resources and under existing constraints
What is capability?
What the system is able to do now with existing resources and under existing constraints, if it really worked at it
What is Potentiality?
What system should be achieving if it developed its resources and removed its constraints
What 3 further performance measures does Beer introduce?
Productivity, Latency, and Performance
What is productivity?
The ratio of actuality to capability
What is latency?
the ratio of capability to potentiality
What is performance?
the ratio of actuality to potentiality
Who was Derek Hitchins, and what theory did he create?
British systems engineer and professor of engineering management. He created Systems architecture
What is systems architecture?
The pattern made by all the subsystems and their interconnections to support the function, purpose, and performance of the system
Who was William Edwards Deming, and what theory did he create?
American engineer, statistician, academic, consultant, and influential force behind the Japanese industrial revolution. Father of modern quality management, his theory, System of Profounds Knowledge.
What four elements does Deming suggest to focus on to understand and predict the behavior of any system?
The System, Theories, Human Behavior, and Variation
What are the two causes for variation?
natural causes and assignable causes
Who was Eliyahu Moshe Goldratt, and what theory did he create?
Israeli business, management guru, originator of the optimized production technique. He created the Theory of Constraints.
What three measures can be used to control the variation?
Throughput, Inventory, and Operating expenses
What is throughput?
rate at which the system processes work
What is inventory?
the accumulation of work through the system
What is operating expenses?
the resources the system consumes to turn inventory into throughput
How can the three system’s performance measures be balanced to maximize system performance?
maximizing throughput by meeting expectations while minimizing inventory and operating expenses
What are the main five key characteristics of hard systems?
predictable behaviors
high-integrity parts
high-integrity connections
feedback that can be used to compensate for deviation
rate of deterioration/entropy is predictable
What is a flowchart?
a diagram that uses standard symbols to illustrate various activities of a process in sequential order
What is a data-flow diagram (DFD’s)?
form of flowchart that provide the means of representing flow of data through a system
What four symbols do DFD’s use, what do they symbolize?
Entity: a process that transforms inputs into outputs
Flow: connects entities to one another
Store: illustrates storage or whatever is flowing between entities
External entity (terminal): stands outside the boundaries of a system but interacts with the system
What are the 3 key differences between flowcharts and DFDs?
DFDs use fewer symbols
flows between entities are annotated to describe the nature of the flows
there is no time element represented
What 3 modeling techniques does the Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM) comprise of? And what do they do?
Data modeling: details the data requirements of a system
Data flow modeling: details how data moves through the system
Entity event modeling: details the events and their sequence that impact on an entity and affect the behavior of a system over time
What is the Value Stream Mapping (VSM)?
a technique that emerged from the lean thinking or management movement.
What does Lean management focus on?
minimizing waste within organizations while simultaneously maximizing quality, productivity, and customer service performance?
What does VSM help with?
optimize the system design to minimize waste
What is the Discrete Event Simulation (DES)?
simulation-based approach used for modeling systems
What is Agent-based modeling (ABM)?
A simulation modeling method that focuses on modeling and simulating autonomous parts.
An agent-based model typically has what 3 components:
Agents with their properties/attributes and behaviors
Relationships or interactions between the agents that create an underlying topology of interconnectedness
Interactions of the agents with the surrounding environment
What are the five main characteristics of soft systems?
unpredictable behavior
autonomous parts with high levels of variation shaped by different worldviews
loosely defined dynamic relationships that can change significantly in the short and long term
Parts connected through a defined dynamic web of relationships, power structure, shared interests and values
Feedback is used to compensate for deviation
Who created the Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) and what was it about?
Peter Checkland. SSM provides an organized way of thinking through these kinds of soft system problems.
What are the seven steps to comprised in the SSM?
The problem situation unstructured
The problem situation expressed
Root definitions of relevant systems
conceptual models and measures of performance
Comparison of steps 4 with 2
Feasible changes or interventions
Action to improve the problem situation
What is a rich picture?
technique developed as an action learning mechanism to help learn about complex and ill-defined systems
What are causal loop diagrams?
an illustration of causal relationships between the entities within a system.
Into what two characterizations can relationships between entities be identified?
Positive or negative links
What is a positive causal link?
two entities change in the same direction
What is a negative causal link?
two entities change in opposite directions
What are the three steps for constructing cognitive maps?
gathering data
Linking the statements
Tidying up the map
Who was Gregory Bateson, and what did he do?
Anthropologist and philosopher. Had a strong influence on the environmental movement and organizational theory
Who was Norbert Weiner, and what did he do?
child prodigy. He defined cybernetics, contributed to the foundation of modern probability theory, and his work can be divided into: mathematics, cybernetics, and social and political commenting.
Who was Warren McCulloch, and what did he do?
Described as “Moses,” was a significant figure in the field of cybernetics through the Macy Conferences
What are the Macy Conferences?
Set of meetings of scholars from various disciplines. The aim was to promote meaningful communication across scientific disciplines and restore unity to science
What is Cybernetics?
a transdisciplinary approach to exploring regulatory systems - their structures, constraints, and possibilities
Who was Margaret Mead, and what did she do?
Anthropologist. Involved in the birth of the systems movement, and rose to fame from her clarity of her writing - simplified complex topics.
Who was Karl Ludwig Von Veralanffy, and what did he do?
Creator of the General Systems Theory. Considered the father of open systems.
Who was Jay Forrester, and what did he do?
American Engineer, Management thinker, and founder of Systems Dynamics (SD).
Who was Donella (Dana) Meadows, and what did she do?
Environmental scientist and activist. Author of The Limits to Growth. Allowed for the accessibility of her work on systems to the general public
Who was Peter Senge, and why was he important?
Management academic and consultant. Famous for the concept of The Learning Organization
Who was Russell Ackoff, and what did he do?
Pioneer of applying systems approaches to management. Helped propel Systems Thinking
Who was Kurt Lewin, and what did he do?
Visionary and deeply original thinker. Founder of Social Psychology
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