Systems Thinking MIDTERM

What is a system?

A collection of interacting parts/components/actors, in which the interactions result in system-level properties and behaviors not attributable to the sum of individual parts

What isn’t a system?

conglomeration - ex. sand scattered in a road

What is an open system?

interact with the environment, and can be changed by the environment

What is a closed system?

does not interact with the environment and does not have any reactionary behavior

Are closed vs open systems binary? If not, what are they?

No, they exist in a spectrum

What is the spectrum of closed vs open systems?

Fully open, partially open, and closed

What is a hard system?

a system constructed of high-integrity components and is predictable

What is a soft system?

a system constructed by a high variety of changes and unpredictable behaviors

Define worldviews

the perceptions influenced by social factors

What are the five things that make systems complex?

1. The number of parts

2. The number of connections

3. Dynamic relationships between parts

4. Non-linear interactions

5. Varying responses

Define perceived complexity?

how stakeholders see a system

What does the term complicated mean?

folded, able to be taken apart, predictable

What does the term complex mean?

woven together, unable to be taken apart, unpredictable

Define emergence

properties of the system that are caused by the interactions and relationships between elements rather than by the elements themselves

What is weak emergence?

Behavior of the system that can be explained or predict

What is strong emergence?

Behavior of the system that is more difficult to explain or predict

What is a holacracy?

form of organization that distributes authority and decision-making through a network of self-organized teams that are bound together with a shared purpose and common set of goals and rules.

What are the three classifications of system problems?

tame, messy, and wicked

What are tame system problems?

can be defined and solved. They have a correct solution

What are messy system problems?

The most common type. Poorly defined and do not have a single correct solution

What are wicked system problems?

always involve a loser and a winner. Problems that cannot be solved.

Define system purpose

What a system does

Define system function

How a system delivers its purpose

True or false, all systems have inputs and outputs?

True

What are inputs?

processed through he system and leave the system in a changed state

What are resources?

consumed by the function of the system

What are controls?

set expectations, standards or requirements a system should fulfill

What are outputs?

produced by the system in line with its function and its purpose

What is efficency?

the resources consumed to produce the outputs

What is effectiveness?

the extent to which the output fulfills the specification defined by the controls

What is efficacy?

the potential performance of the system, lab setting

What are stocks?

measures of quantity at a given time

What are flows?

measures of quantity over time

What is entropy?

a metaphor for ageing, skill fade, or obsolescence

What is Homeostasis?

description of a system that maintains its ‘steady state’ or a system that is in a ‘dynamic equilibrium’

Who was James Grier Miller, and what theory did he create?

American psychologist, psychiatrist. He created the Living Systems Theory

What was the purpose of the Living Systems Theory? And what was its core?

A general theory about the existence of all living systems. All nature is a continuum and the endless complexity of life can be organized into patterns that repeat themselves at each level of system

How many nested hierarchical levels did Miller organize living systems into? And what are they? (Think COOGOCSS)

1. Cells

2. Organ

3. Organism

4. Group

5. Organization

6. Community

7. Society

8. Supranational

According to Miller, into what four dimensions could the eight levels of systems be organized to?

matter/energy, information, space, and time

What is a concrete system?

system that exists in reality and is composed of tangible objects

What is a conceptual system?

a system that exists in reality and is composed of intangible objects

What is an abstract system?

a system composed of tangible and/or intangible objects, but does not exist in reality, only as an idea.

Who was Anthony Stafford Beer? What was his theory?

British consultant and academic. His theory is on cybernetics

What is Cybernetics according to Beer?

the study of control and communication systems in animals and machines

What is management cybernetics?

the application of cybernetics to management and organizations

How does Beer define a viable system?

a system that can self-produce

In wanting to understand what makes a system viable, what model did Beer create?

Viable Systems Model (VSM)

According to Beer any viable system comprises of how many systems, and what do each do?

1. Operational part of a system

2. Enables coordination between system 1’s

3. Controls the rules, resources, roles, and responsibilities of system 1’s

4. Monitors the environment

5. Sets direction and policy for the whole system

Into what 3 things does Beer characterize performance?

actuality, capability, and potentiality

What is actuality?

What the system is able to do now with existing resources and under existing constraints

What is capability?

What the system is able to do now with existing resources and under existing constraints, if it really worked at it

What is Potentiality?

What system should be achieving if it developed its resources and removed its constraints

What 3 further performance measures does Beer introduce?

Productivity, Latency, and Performance

What is productivity?

The ratio of actuality to capability

What is latency?

the ratio of capability to potentiality

What is performance?

the ratio of actuality to potentiality

Who was Derek Hitchins, and what theory did he create?

British systems engineer and professor of engineering management. He created Systems architecture

What is systems architecture?

The pattern made by all the subsystems and their interconnections to support the function, purpose, and performance of the system

Who was William Edwards Deming, and what theory did he create?

American engineer, statistician, academic, consultant, and influential force behind the Japanese industrial revolution. Father of modern quality management, his theory, System of Profounds Knowledge.

What four elements does Deming suggest to focus on to understand and predict the behavior of any system?

The System, Theories, Human Behavior, and Variation

What are the two causes for variation?

natural causes and assignable causes

Who was Eliyahu Moshe Goldratt, and what theory did he create?

Israeli business, management guru, originator of the optimized production technique. He created the Theory of Constraints.

What three measures can be used to control the variation?

Throughput, Inventory, and Operating expenses

What is throughput?

rate at which the system processes work

What is inventory?

the accumulation of work through the system

What is operating expenses?

the resources the system consumes to turn inventory into throughput

How can the three system’s performance measures be balanced to maximize system performance?

maximizing throughput by meeting expectations while minimizing inventory and operating expenses

What are the main five key characteristics of hard systems?

1. predictable behaviors

2. high-integrity parts

3. high-integrity connections

4. feedback that can be used to compensate for deviation

5. rate of deterioration/entropy is predictable

What is a flowchart?

a diagram that uses standard symbols to illustrate various activities of a process in sequential order

What is a data-flow diagram (DFD’s)?

form of flowchart that provide the means of representing flow of data through a system

What four symbols do DFD’s use, what do they symbolize?

1. Entity: a process that transforms inputs into outputs

2. Flow: connects entities to one another

3. Store: illustrates storage or whatever is flowing between entities

4. External entity (terminal): stands outside the boundaries of a system but interacts with the system

What are the 3 key differences between flowcharts and DFDs?

1. DFDs use fewer symbols

2. flows between entities are annotated to describe the nature of the flows

3. there is no time element represented

What 3 modeling techniques does the Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM) comprise of? And what do they do?

1. Data modeling: details the data requirements of a system

2. Data flow modeling: details how data moves through the system

3. Entity event modeling: details the events and their sequence that impact on an entity and affect the behavior of a system over time

What is the Value Stream Mapping (VSM)?

a technique that emerged from the lean thinking or management movement.

What does Lean management focus on?

minimizing waste within organizations while simultaneously maximizing quality, productivity, and customer service performance?

What does VSM help with?

optimize the system design to minimize waste

What is the Discrete Event Simulation (DES)?

simulation-based approach used for modeling systems

What is Agent-based modeling (ABM)?

A simulation modeling method that focuses on modeling and simulating autonomous parts.

An agent-based model typically has what 3 components:

1. Agents with their properties/attributes and behaviors

2. Relationships or interactions between the agents that create an underlying topology of interconnectedness

3. Interactions of the agents with the surrounding environment

What are the five main characteristics of soft systems?

1. unpredictable behavior

2. autonomous parts with high levels of variation shaped by different worldviews

3. loosely defined dynamic relationships that can change significantly in the short and long term

4. Parts connected through a defined dynamic web of relationships, power structure, shared interests and values

5. Feedback is used to compensate for deviation

Who created the Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) and what was it about?

Peter Checkland. SSM provides an organized way of thinking through these kinds of soft system problems.

What are the seven steps to comprised in the SSM?

1. The problem situation unstructured

2. The problem situation expressed

3. Root definitions of relevant systems

4. conceptual models and measures of performance

5. Comparison of steps 4 with 2

6. Feasible changes or interventions

7. Action to improve the problem situation

What is a rich picture?

technique developed as an action learning mechanism to help learn about complex and ill-defined systems

What are causal loop diagrams?

an illustration of causal relationships between the entities within a system.

Into what two characterizations can relationships between entities be identified?

Positive or negative links

What is a positive causal link?

two entities change in the same direction

What is a negative causal link?

two entities change in opposite directions

What are the three steps for constructing cognitive maps?

1. gathering data

2. Linking the statements

3. Tidying up the map

Who was Gregory Bateson, and what did he do?

Anthropologist and philosopher. Had a strong influence on the environmental movement and organizational theory

Who was Norbert Weiner, and what did he do?

child prodigy. He defined cybernetics, contributed to the foundation of modern probability theory, and his work can be divided into: mathematics, cybernetics, and social and political commenting.

Who was Warren McCulloch, and what did he do?

Described as “Moses,” was a significant figure in the field of cybernetics through the Macy Conferences

What are the Macy Conferences?

Set of meetings of scholars from various disciplines. The aim was to promote meaningful communication across scientific disciplines and restore unity to science

What is Cybernetics?

a transdisciplinary approach to exploring regulatory systems - their structures, constraints, and possibilities

Who was Margaret Mead, and what did she do?

Anthropologist. Involved in the birth of the systems movement, and rose to fame from her clarity of her writing - simplified complex topics.

Who was Karl Ludwig Von Veralanffy, and what did he do?

Creator of the General Systems Theory. Considered the father of open systems.

Who was Jay Forrester, and what did he do?

American Engineer, Management thinker, and founder of Systems Dynamics (SD).

Who was Donella (Dana) Meadows, and what did she do?

Environmental scientist and activist. Author of The Limits to Growth. Allowed for the accessibility of her work on systems to the general public

Who was Peter Senge, and why was he important?

Management academic and consultant. Famous for the concept of The Learning Organization

Who was Russell Ackoff, and what did he do?

Pioneer of applying systems approaches to management. Helped propel Systems Thinking

Who was Kurt Lewin, and what did he do?

Visionary and deeply original thinker. Founder of Social Psychology