FIFTH SUN CHAPTER 6

What was the basic Spanish political strategy after the conquest?

Spaniards ruled indirectly through Indigenous elites, relying on existing altepetl leadership to maintain order and extract tribute.

How did encomiendas function in early colonial Mexico?

Spaniards received control over a community’s labor and tribute; in theory they were to protect and spiritually guide the people, but in practice it was exploitative.

Why were Indigenous nobles crucial for early Spanish rule?

Only nobles had the authority and local legitimacy to organize labor, tribute, and social order; Spaniards depended on them for governance.

How did Spaniards attempt to consolidate control over rural altepetls?

By forcing villagers to move into larger towns, accepting baptism, and paying tribute in goods and labor.

What forms of tribute did Cuauhtinchan owe after surrender?

Woven blankets, gold pieces, turkeys, and large quantities of corn.

Why did Spanish-controlled Mexico City become the political center after conquest?

Tenochtitlan was in ruins, so Spaniards governed from Coyoacan while rebuilding the capital as the new urban and administrative heart of New Spain.

What role did Spanish artisans and Indigenous workers play in rebuilding Mexico City?

Spaniards trained Indigenous laborers to construct European-style buildings, including the cathedral and government palace.

How were land rights reshaped under Spanish rule?

Spaniards began assigning rural communities as encomiendas to their followers, turning Indigenous towns into tribute units for individual conquistadors.

How did Spanish courts become tools for Indigenous resistance?

Communities like Cuauhtinchan used courts to file land claims and defend ancestral boundaries as encroachment intensified.

How did Spanish tribute and labor demands change Indigenous society?

They strained food production, increased poverty, disrupted local political traditions, and tied everyday life to colonial economic extraction.

Why did Cuauhtinchan hide in marshlands after being defeated in 1521?

It was a traditional strategy after catastrophic loss; they regrouped, elected emissaries, and negotiated peace and tribute from there.

How did the alliance system of altepetls influence early Spanish politics?

Spaniards exploited preexisting rivalries (e.g., Tlaxcalans vs. Cholulans) to control conquered towns and suppress potential rebellions.

How did disease first impact Cuauhtinchan before Spaniards arrived in person?

The 1520 smallpox epidemic killed the ruler Tecuanitzin and thousands more before locals had ever seen Spaniards, showing how disease moved faster than conquest.

How did news of Spanish destruction contribute to early psychological crisis?

Rumors about the fall of Cholula and attacks on Tenochtitlan created fear and instability even before direct Spanish contact.

How did Cuauhtinchan respond after military defeat in 1521?

They hid in marshlands, followed traditional practices for surviving catastrophe, and then sent emissaries to negotiate peace and tribute.

What tribute obligations were imposed after surrender?

Blankets, gold, turkeys, and corn—demands that intensified strain on communities weakened by epidemics and food shortages.

How did Spanish greed worsen Indigenous suffering in the early 1520s?

Spaniards enslaved war captives, branded them, shipped them to the Caribbean, and forced or coerced women into abusive situations.

What major crisis erupted during the Honduras expedition?

Cortés executed Cuauhtémoc, accusing him of rebellion; this act traumatized Indigenous communities and removed a major political figure.

How did epidemics aggravate tribute and labor obligations?

Massive population loss made it difficult for surviving families to plant, harvest, and meet tribute requirements, deepening hunger and vulnerability to disease.

What new crisis emerged in 1529 with Nuño de Guzmán’s arrival?

He launched violent campaigns, arrested Indigenous nobles like Ixtlilxochitl, conscripted warriors, and destabilized political systems across the region.

How were Indigenous elites pressured during Spanish consolidation?

Nobles were forced to convert to Christianity to retain political authority, leading to coerced religious change under threat of dispossession.

What does the arrival of refugee families in 1531 illustrate about post-conquest crisis?

Communities became fragmented; people fled violence, famine, or failed leadership, creating regional displacement and resettlement pressures.

How did the 1544 famine and 1545 epidemic intensify long-term crisis?

Crop failure followed by a massive epidemic caused widespread death, depopulation, and loss of labor, undermining local economies and stability.

How did Cuauhtinchan adapt to land encroachment after depopulation?

They used Spanish courts in 1546 to sue Tepeaca for land theft—an example of Indigenous adaptation through legal systems after disease-driven population decline.

How did local elites experience pre-Spanish political instability in Cuauhtinchan?

Clans fought for dominance; the Pinome allied with Mexica of Tlatelolco, leading to tribute demands and violence decades before Spaniards arrived.

How did Chimalpopoca’s father die, and why is it important?

He was strangled by rival chiefs—showing Indigenous political violence and instability long before the Spanish conquest.

Why was the arrival of Tlaxcalans especially alarming in Cuauhtinchan?

Although some welcomed the fall of the Mexica, Tlaxcala had historically been a brutal enemy of Cholula and its allies.

How did Cuauhtinchan negotiate peace with the Spaniards and Tlaxcalans?

By hiding, regrouping, sending emissaries, and agreeing to tribute terms—strategies rooted in traditional responses to catastrophic defeat.

How did forced resettlement shape Indigenous daily life?

Spaniards pushed families into larger towns for easier taxation, labor control, and Christianization, disrupting traditional community structures.

What motivated don Alonso to collaborate with Spaniards?

He believed cooperation would end local warfare and protect his people from further suffering.

How did Cuauhtinchan’s elites use Spanish literacy?

By creating a written historical book to preserve land claims, protect memory, and strengthen political legitimacy under colonial rule.

How did Indigenous nobles adapt to new tribute burdens?

They negotiated, reorganized community labor, and used Spanish courts—attempts to survive under rising material demands.

Why did Indigenous chroniclers fear “social amnesia”?

As traditions eroded under colonial pressure, they feared future generations would forget their histories, land rights, and political identities.

What long-term adaptation emerged from don Alonso’s historical project?

A fusion of Indigenous memory with Spanish alphabetic writing, preserving altepetl identity for legal and ceremonial use.

Who were the “Twelve Apostles,” and what was their purpose?

The first group of Franciscan missionaries (arrived 1524), tasked with converting Indigenous people to Christianity.

Why is the idea of a quick, successful conversion now rejected by scholars?

Evidence shows Nahuas did not immediately abandon their gods; Christianity was integrated gradually and unevenly.

Why did friars use the term tlacatecolotl for “devil”?

Nahuas had no equivalent concept of Lucifer; friars repurposed a word meaning harmful night-shaman who transformed into an owl.

Why are the 1524 Colloquies historically complicated as a source?

Sahagún wasn’t present, notes were retro-translated into Nahuatl, and editorial shaping likely occurred—yet content is considered broadly reliable.

What did the Nahua priests argue in the Colloquies?

They defended ancestral gods, warned that rejecting them would anger the common people, and insisted they would rather die than abandon traditional worship.

How did friars react to Indigenous resistance in the Colloquies?

They decided to wait for older generations to die and focus conversion efforts on young people.

Where did the Franciscans establish their first missions?

Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlaxcala, and Huexotzinco—regions with the strongest Spanish presence.

Why did local nobles accept baptism during forced political meetings?

To retain office and avoid Spanish reprisals; conversion was often politically coerced.

How did Christianity affect Indigenous marriage customs?

Pressure to practice monogamy created emotional strain for nobles with multiple wives and their children.

What major Christian building project occurred in Cuauhtinchan?

Construction of a stone church, undertaken with pride and effort by the community.

Why was the school at Tlatelolco significant?

It educated elite Indigenous boys in reading, writing, Latin, and Christian doctrine; it trained a new bicultural leadership class.

Who was Cristóbal, and why is he important?

A boy from Cuauhtinchan educated at Tlatelolco; he became a skilled writer and helped produce don Alonso’s historical manuscript.

How did Spanish education create new social tensions?

Families whose sons received Spanish-style schooling gained status, causing divisions with families who maintained traditional practices.