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House of Representatives
435 members who represent congressional districts, each serving a 2-year term.
Senate
100 members (2 per state) who represent entire states, each serving a 6-year term.
House of Representatives Term Length
Elected every 2 years, with a 2-year term.
Senate Term Length
Elected every 6 years, with a 6-year term.
Formal Qualifications for House
Must be at least 25 years old, a U.S. citizen for at least 7 years, and a resident of the state.
Informal Qualifications for House
Voters' trust, political experience, fundraising ability.
Formal Qualifications for Senate
Must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen for at least 9 years, and a resident of the state.
Informal Qualifications for Senate
Political connections, experience, ability to fundraise.
Incumbent Advantage
Around 90-95% of incumbents are re-elected due to name recognition, campaign funding, established networks, gerrymandering, and influence through legislation or services.
Reapportionment
Redistribution of seats in the House based on the decennial census, dividing 435 seats among states based on population shifts.
Redistricting
The process of redrawing district lines within states, occurring every 10 years after reapportionment.
Gerrymandering
The manipulation of district boundaries to favor a particular party or group.
Speaker of the House
The most powerful position in the House, leading the House, presiding over debates, and representing the House in dealings with the President and Senate.
Majority Leader (House)
Helps set the legislative agenda.
Minority Leader (House)
Leads the opposition party in the House.
Vice President (Senate)
Official leader of the Senate who votes only to break ties.
President Pro Tempore
Typically the senior member of the majority party who presides in the Vice President's absence.
Majority Leader (Senate)
Sets the legislative agenda and leads the majority party.
Minority Leader (Senate)
Leads the opposition party.
Standing Committee
Permanent committees that focus on specific areas of policy (e.g., armed services, education).
Subcommittee
Smaller committees within a standing committee that deal with specific aspects of an issue.
Rules Committee
Determines the rules for debating and voting on bills in the House.
Conference Committee
Works out differences between the House and Senate versions of a bill before it can be passed into law.
Steps for a Bill to Become Law
Introduced by a member of Congress, assigned to committee for review, debated and voted on in committee, debated and voted on in full House or Senate, passed to the other chamber, and then to the President.
Pork Barrel Legislation
Legislation that provides funds for local projects, often used to gain favor with constituents.
Logrolling
The practice of exchanging favors, especially in politics, by reciprocal voting for each other's proposed legislation.
Pork Barrel Legislation
Laws passed to benefit a specific district or group, often involving government spending.
Logrolling
The practice of exchanging favors, where one legislator supports another's bill in exchange for support on their own.
Committees
Most legislative work is done in committees. They review, amend, and shape legislation before it goes to the full chamber for debate and voting.
Primary Responsibility of Congress
Making laws, overseeing the executive branch, and representing the interests of the people.
House of Representatives
Initiates revenue bills and impeachment proceedings.
Senate
Confirms appointments (like judicial nominations) and ratifies treaties.
Override a Veto
If the President vetoes a bill, Congress can override it with a two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate.
Impeachment & Removal
The House can impeach the President, and the Senate can remove them from office with a two-thirds vote.
Approve Appointments
The Senate must confirm presidential appointments, such as Supreme Court justices, cabinet members, and ambassadors.
Approve Treaties
The Senate must ratify treaties the President negotiates with a two-thirds vote.
Control the Budget
Congress controls federal spending and can refuse to fund presidential initiatives.
Oversight & Investigations
Congress can investigate the executive branch through hearings and subpoena power.
Declare War
Only Congress has the power to declare war, limiting the President's military authority.
Formal Qualifications for President
Must be at least 35 years old, must be a natural-born citizen of the U.S., must have lived in the U.S. for at least 14 years.
Informal Qualifications for President
Political experience (e.g., serving as a governor, senator), strong leadership and public speaking skills, ability to raise money for campaigns, a broad appeal to voters.
Chief Administrator
Manages the executive branch and oversees federal agencies.
Chief Legislator
Influences Congress, proposes laws, and can sign or veto bills.
Chief of State
Acts as the symbolic leader of the country (e.g., hosting foreign leaders, giving speeches).
Commander in Chief
Leads the U.S. military and makes key defense decisions.
Chief Diplomat
Directs foreign policy, negotiates treaties, and meets with world leaders.
President Election Process
Citizens vote in the popular vote (November). The Electoral College casts votes based on state results. A candidate must receive 270 out of 538 electoral votes to win.
House of Representatives Role in Election
If no candidate gets 270 electoral votes, the House of Representatives decides the winner.
President's Term of Office
4 years per term; can serve two terms (8 years total) due to the 22nd Amendment.
Impeachment Process
The House of Representatives impeaches (brings charges with a majority vote). The Senate holds a trial and votes (needs a two-thirds majority to convict and remove the President).
Impeached Presidents
Andrew Johnson (1868) - Not removed, Bill Clinton (1998) - Not removed, Donald Trump (2019 & 2021) - Not removed.
Vice President Role in Executive Branch
Takes over if the President dies, resigns, or is removed.
Vice President Role in Senate
President of the Senate, breaks tie votes.
Presidential Line of Succession
1. Vice President, 2. Speaker of the House.
Budget and Accounting Act of 1921
Gives the President the authority to oversee the budget.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
Helps prepare the U.S. budget.
Primary responsibility of the executive branch
Enforce laws passed by Congress.
Growth in government
Occurs due to wars, economic crises, and social programs.
Major expansions of government
1. 1930s - New Deal (FDR's response to the Great Depression) 2. 1960s - Great Society (LBJ's programs like Medicare & Medicaid)
Veto Power
The President can reject bills.
Executive Orders
Can issue orders bypassing Congress.
Call Special Sessions
The President can force Congress to meet.
Executive agreements
Agreements between the President and foreign leaders that don't need Senate approval.
Supreme Court
Established by Article III of the U.S. Constitution.
Authority to establish additional courts
Given to Congress.
Dual court system
The U.S. has both federal and state courts.
Federal district courts
There are 94 district courts in the U.S. that handle most federal cases.
Court of Appeals (Circuit Courts)
There are 13 circuit courts that review cases appealed from district courts.
Appointment of federal judges
Federal judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.
Judges' term length
They serve for life unless they retire or are removed.
Political ideology
The most important factor affecting the appointment of federal judges.
Original jurisdiction
Refers to the court's authority to hear a case first.
Appellate jurisdiction
The authority to review decisions made by lower courts.
Civil law
Involves disputes between individuals or entities, typically over money or property.
Criminal law
Deals with actions that are considered offenses against society, like theft or murder.
Writ of Certiorari
An order from the Supreme Court to review a case, typically issued if significant legal questions are involved.
Supreme Court opinion types
Majority Opinion, Plurality Opinion, Concurring Opinion, Dissenting Opinion.
Judicial restraint
Means judges limit their power and avoid making new laws.
Judicial activism
Means judges interpret the Constitution broadly and may create new policies.
Strict constructionism
Refers to interpreting the Constitution exactly as it is written, with little room for modern interpretation.
Amicus curiae brief
A document filed by a non-party to a case, offering information or arguments to assist the court.
Judicial review
The power of courts to review the constitutionality of laws and government actions, established in Marbury v. Madison (1803).
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