Unit 4: Psychology

Attribution (Attribution Theory)

The process of explaining the causes of behavior, whether due to internal (dispositional) or external (situational) factors

Dispositional Attributions

Assigning the cause of behavior to internal traits, abilities, or personality

Situational Attributions

Assigning the cause of behavior to external factors, such as the environment or circumstances

Explanatory Style

A person's habitual way of explaining events, often categorized as optimistic or pessimistic

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute one's own behavior to external factors but others’ behavior to internal factors

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when judging others

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute success to internal factors and failures to external ones

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that one's actions and decisions directly influence outcomes

Mere Exposure Effect

Increased liking for something due to repeated exposure

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When expectations about a person lead them to behave in ways that confirm those expectations

External Locus of Control

The belief that external forces, such as luck or fate, control outcomes

Social Comparison

Evaluating oneself by comparing to others

Relative Deprivation

Feeling disadvantaged when comparing oneself to others

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort required to process information

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a group based on stereotypes

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of individuals based on group membership

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious beliefs or feelings toward a group

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve

Belief Perseverance

Holding onto beliefs even after they’ve been disproven

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out information that supports pre-existing beliefs

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The perception that members of an out-group are more similar than they actually are

In-Group Bias

Favoring one’s own group over others

Ethnocentrism

Viewing one's own culture as superior

Cognitive Dissonance

The discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors

Social Norms

Expected behaviors within a society or group

Social Influence Theory

The study of how people influence others' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to fit in with a group

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because others provide valuable information

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Persuasion based on superficial cues rather than content

Halo Effect

The tendency to let a single characteristic shape overall perception of someone

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Gaining compliance with a small request first to increase chances of compliance with a larger one

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Asking for a large request first, expecting refusal, then making a smaller request

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or beliefs to align with group norms

Persuasion

Changing attitudes through communication and reasoning

Central Route Persuasion

Persuasion based on logical arguments and evidence

Obedience

Compliance with orders from an authority figure

Multiculturalism

Recognizing and valuing diverse cultural influences

Group Polarization

When group discussions strengthen individuals’ pre-existing views

Groupthink

When group members prioritize harmony over critical thinking

Diffusion of Responsibility

The tendency to feel less responsible when in a group

Social Loafing

Reduced effort when working

Deindividuation

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on simple tasks in the presence of others but decreased performance on difficult tasks

Prosocial Behavior

Actions that benefit others or society as a whole

Altruism

Helping others without expecting anything in return

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation that people will help those in need

The Bystander Effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in emergencies when others are present

Individualism

A cultural focus on personal goals and independence

Collectivism

A cultural focus on group goals and interdependence

Personality

An individual’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychodynamic Theory

Freud’s theory that unconscious motives shape personality

Ego

The rational part of personality that balances the id and superego

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety

Denial

Refusing to accept reality

Displacement

Redirecting emotions toward a less threatening object or person

Projection

Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts to others

Humanistic Psychology

A perspective emphasizing personal growth and free will

Unconditional Positive Regard

Total acceptance of another person

Rationalization

Justifying behavior with logical but false reasons

Reaction Formation

Acting opposite to one's true feelings

Regression

Reverting to an earlier stage of development

Repression

Burying distressing thoughts in the unconscious

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities

Projective Tests

Personality tests that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts

Preconscious

Thoughts that are not conscious but can be easily recalled

Unconscious

Thoughts, memories, and desires that are not directly accessible but influence behavior

Self-Actualizing Tendency

The drive to fulfill one’s potential

Social-Cognitive Theory

The view that behavior is influenced by interaction with the environment

Reciprocal Determinism

The theory that behavior, cognition, and environment influence each other

Self-Concept

One’s perception of oneself

Traits

Stable personality characteristics

The Big Five Theory

A model identifying five key personality traits

Agreeableness

A personality trait involving kindness and cooperation

Self-Efficacy

The belief in one’s ability to succeed

Self-Esteem

A person’s overall self-worth

Openness to Experience

A personality trait associated with creativity and curiosity

Extraversion

A personality trait linked to sociability and energy

Conscientiousness

A personality trait involving organization and responsibility

Emotional Stability

The ability to remain calm and composed under stress

Personality Inventories

Standardized questionnaires used to assess personality traits

Factor Analysis

A statistical technique for identifying clusters of related items

Drive-Reduction Theory

The idea that behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs

Arousal Theory

The idea that people seek an optimal level of arousal for performance

Optimal Level of Arousal

The level of arousal that leads to the best performance

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The principle that performance is best at moderate arousal levels

Self-Determination Theory

A theory that emphasizes the role of intrinsic motivation in behavior

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in activities for personal satisfaction

Hormones

Chemical messengers that regulate body functions

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger

Leptin

A hormone that regulates energy balance and suppresses appetite

Extrinsic Motivation

Performing tasks for external rewards

Instincts

Innate behaviors triggered by specific stimuli

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

A model describing different types of conflicts in decision-making

Approach-Approach Conflict

A choice between two desirable options

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

A choice involving both positive and negative aspects

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

A choice between two undesirable options

Sensation-Seeking Theory

The idea that people differ in their need for novel and intense experiences

Glucose

A sugar used by the body as a primary energy source

Hypothalamus

A brain region controlling hunger, thirst, and other drives

Pituitary Gland

The "master gland" that regulates other endocrine glands