History Notes Lecture Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from History Notes Lectures 1–5, focusing on core ideas, peoples, artifacts, and methods in world history.

history

The never-ending conversation among past, present, and future; a dynamic, interpretive process rather than a fixed set of facts.

thinking historically

Critical analysis and interpretation of evidence within the appropriate time and place context.

primary source

Direct evidence from the time period studied, categorized into natural world, human remains, archaeological findings, texts, and art/architecture.

natural world (primary source)

Evidence from nature, such as ice cores, that informs us about past climates and environments.

human remains (primary source)

Skeletons and other human remains used to infer diet, health, and genetics.

archaeological findings (primary source)

Artifacts and structures uncovered by archaeologists revealing daily life, technology, and values.

texts (primary source)

Written documents like letters, legal codes, inscriptions that reveal thoughts and actions of past peoples.

art and architecture (primary source)

Cultural expressions that reflect beliefs, social hierarchies, and technological progress.

5 C’s of Historical Thinking

Change over time; Context; Causality; Contingency; Complexity.

change over time

How things evolve or remain constant across periods.

context

Surrounding circumstances and conditions that shape events and evidence.

causality

Relationships between cause and effect in historical processes.

contingency

How events could have unfolded differently under alternate circumstances.

complexity

Considering multiple interacting factors in a situation.

environmental history

A methodology that examines how the natural environment influences human history.

economic history

Study of economies, trade, and material life across time.

social history

Focus on social structures, daily life, and groups within society.

cultural history

Study of beliefs, arts, rituals, and cultural practices.

Out of Africa migration

Early movement of Homo sapiens from Africa into other regions.

Homo sapiens

Modern humans; appeared around 150,000 years ago.

hominids/hominins

Hominid-era ancestors and relatives; terms used for human-related species.

radiocarbon dating

Dating method for organic materials up to about 70,000 years old.

potassium-argon dating (K-Ar)

Dating method for potassium-bearing minerals; useful for very old materials (billions of years in some cases).

luminescence dating

Dating method for stone tools and pottery, from about 1,000 to 1,000,000 years ago.

first wave (150,000–200,000 years ago)

Initial wave of Homo sapiens migrating out of eastern Africa.

second wave (60,000–70,000 years ago)

Major later migration that contributed to Eurasian settlement and replacement/displacement of other hominids.

Proto-Indo-European (PIE)

Hypothetical ancient language family that is the ancestor of many European and South Asian languages.

Kurgan Hypothesis

PIE spread from the Pontic-Caspian steppe by nomadic speakers around 6,000–5,000 years ago.

Anatolian Hypothesis

PIE originated in Anatolia (modern Turkey) and spread with agricultural expansion about 8,500 years ago.

Language Wars

Debate over PIE origins, intensified by ancient DNA and linguistic evidence.

Yamnaya

Steppe people linked to the Steppe hypothesis; their genetic signature appears across Europe.

Martin Bernal

Historian who argued for Afroasiatic roots of classical civilization in Black Athena.

Black Athena

Bernal’s work proposing Afroasiatic roots for Greek civilization and challenging Eurocentric narratives.

Aryan Model

View that Greek civilization originated from Indo-European migrants from the North.

Ancient Model

View that Greek civilization had significant Egyptian and Phoenician influences.

Revised Ancient Model

Bernal’s synthesis recognizing both northern migrations and southern Mediterranean influences on Greece.

Fertile Crescent

Geographic arc between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; cradle of early civilizations.

Bronze Age

Period (roughly 3500–900 BCE) with bronze tool/weapon use and early city-states.

Iron Age

Period (roughly 1500 BCE–1900 CE) characterized by widespread iron use.

Sumerian City-States

Early Mesopotamian political units centered in southern Mesopotamia; built around ziggurats.

Sargon

Founder of the Akkadian Empire; unified Mesopotamia.

Naram-Sin

Akkadian king who called himself 'king of the four quarters' and claimed divinity.

Hammurabi

Babylonian king known for Hammurabi’s Code of laws.

Code of Hammurabi

One of the oldest known legal codes, reflecting Babylonian society and values.

ziggurat

Massive terraced temple pyramid central to Mesopotamian cities.

Neo-Assyrian Empire

Powerful Mesopotamian empire (c. 900–612 BCE) known for military expansion.

Babylonian Empire

Empire centered on Babylon; famous for law, culture, and urban achievement.

Persian/Achaemenid Empire

Expansive empire founded by Cyrus the Great; integration of many peoples.

Ramesses II

New Kingdom pharaoh known for military exploits and monumental building.

Hatshepsut

Female pharaoh who expanded inscriptions and monuments; portrayed as powerful.

Akhenaten

Pharaoh who attempted monotheistic worship of Aten; religious reform.

Battle of Megiddo

Ancient battle (c. 1450 BCE) with one of the earliest reconstructable battles.

Deir el-Medineh

Village workers’ area in Thebes; archive of daily life, labor, and culture.

Rosetta Stone

Key artifact deciphering hieroglyphs; inscription in Greek and hieroglyphic scripts.

Ain Sakhri Lovers

Calcite figurine (ca. 9000 BCE) depicting an intimate scene; earliest representation of sexual activity.

Standard of Ur

Ancient wooden box (c. 2600–2400 BCE) with 'War' and 'Peace' panels illustrating Mesopotamian life.

Early Writing Tablet

Clay tablet from Uruk (ca. 3100 BCE) showing beer distribution; early cuneiform document.

Epic of Gilgamesh

Ancient Mesopotamian epic about Gilgamesh, Enkidu, the Great Flood, and immortality.

Gilgamesh

King of Uruk; a legendary figure, two-thirds god and one-third man.

Enkidu

Companion of Gilgamesh, created to challenge him; becomes close friend.

Utnapishtim

Survivor of the Great Flood who gains immortality; central to Gilgamesh.

Ishtar

Goddess of fertility who tries to associate with Gilgamesh and is rejected.

Anu

Chief Mesopotamian god in the pantheon.

Humbaba

Guardian of the Cedar Forest in Gilgamesh; defeated by Gilgamesh and Enkidu.

Ur-Shanabi

Boatman who ferries Gilgamesh across the waters of death.

Ninsun

Goddess who mentors Gilgamesh and intervenes in the epic.

Siduri

Divine cup-bearer who cautions Gilgamesh on his quest.

Minoan Bull-leaper

Bronze figurine from Crete (2000–700 BCE) depicting bull-leaping; emblem of Minoan culture.

Gold Coin of Croesus

Early coinage from Lydia (Croesus) illustrating monetary innovation.

Parthenon Centaur and Lapith

Relief from the Parthenon showing a battle between centaurs and Lapiths.

Coin with Head of Alexander

Hellenistic coin minted in Lampsakos depicting Alexander the Great.

Alexander the Great

Conqueror whose empire spread Greek culture across a vast region.

Clovis Spear Point

Flint point associated with Clovis culture, marking the first widespread peopling of the Americas.

Olduvai Stone Chopping Tool

One of the oldest simple stone tools; rudimentary, impactful in human toolmaking.

Olduvai Handaxe

Advanced teardrop-shaped stone tool from Olduvai Gorge; emblem of early craftsmanship.