AP Art History Works - unfinished

Medium, vocab & style, content, date, location/artist, context/function

Apollo 11 Stones

Made of charcoal, ochre, and white

Depicts a half-antelope half-human

Cracked in two

Found in Western Africa in 1969-1972

From 25,500-25,300 BCE

Small and portable, likely spiritual

Great Hall of the Bulls - Lascaux Cave

Made of ochre and many pigments

Depicts bulls, horses, bears, and other large animals

Overlapping pictures, hierarchy of scale, twisted perspective

Found in Lascaux Cave, France, a site with around 6,000 other animals depicted on cave ceilings and walls

From around 15,000 BCE

Likely spiritual connections and for artistic purposes

Camelid Sacrum in the Shape of a Canine

Made of sacrum bone from a camelid animal, carved by tools and human hand, finished with polish

Depicts a canine mammal’s skull

Symmetrical, round carvings

Found in Tequixquiac, Mexico, 40 feet under ground

From around 14,000 BCE

Small, likely sacred fertility item, possibl

Running Horned Woman

Made of charcoals, ochre, and red pigments, wet sponges used to enhance pigments

Depicts a therianthrope woman running, dressed in fancy clothing, shows people going about daily lives

Twisted perspective, hierarchy of scale, scarification on her body, no face

Found in Tecili Niger, Algeria, in a cave

6,000-4,000 BCE

Likely depicting a Goddess, possibly a fertility celebration

Bushel with Ibex Motifs

Made of clay and paint (slow wheel? hand-painted)

Depicts a Mountain Goat (Ibex), dogs, and birds, framed with decorations, grains shown in the middle

Bodies of animals are distorted, hierarchy of scale, register: broken composition

Found in Susu Iran, area had been occupied for 5,000 years, found in a burial site underneath a temple

4,200 BCE

Used for burial ceremonies, could also symbolize new life, pottery shows the civilization was settled and had free-time

Anthropomorphic Stele

Carved into a flat, vertical stone, 3D, both sides are carved, 3’

Depicts a male figure with warrior-like accessories

Human characteristics are vague, geometrically stylized

Found in Ha’il, Saudi Arabia in a burial site, pre-Islam Arabia

6000-4000 BCE

Used as a grave marker, shows developed tool usage

Jade Cong

Carved Cong into a piece of jade jadeite, hollow center

Depicts Taotie, mythical Chinese creature, geometric patterns

Taoties had big eyes and no jaw, vaguely represented

Found in Liangzhu, China, in burials and grave sites

2500 BCE

Used as a symbol of wealth, represented death, shows skill of carving and using jade

Stonehenge

Arranged stones in a henge formation, large Sarsen stones, smaller bluestones

Megalith

Posts and lintels, triliths, all in a circular formation

Found in Salisbury Plain, England

3000-1500 BCE

Used as a solar calendar, trilithon horseshoe frames the Sun on the Summer Solstice, could be used in rituals to worship the Sun

Ambum Stone

Carved Graywacke stone, smooth surface, 8”, shiny patina finish

In the shape of an unknown creature, anteater or echidna?

Detailed, proves talent with stone tools, strong material

Found in Enga, Western Himalayas

1500 BCE

Could be spiritual, means of protection, or promotion of fertility, used to grind herbs in a mortar and pestle

Tlatilco Figure

Made of ceramics, 4” tall, reds, yellows, and blacks, rolled stamped designs, incisions

In the shape of a woman, hips are emphasized, sharp eyes and a slight smile, two faces and one body

Shows the duality motif, detailed hair, obvious female shape

Found in the Valley of Mexico, Tlatilco

1200-900 BCE

Two faces could represent life and death, birth defects, twins, found in burial sites under present-day Mexico City

Lapita Terracota Fragments

Made of clay and sand, cracked, stamped and incised designs, hand shaped

Vaguely shows a human face, geometric intricate patterns

Intricate patterns that were important to Lapita culture, could be depicting sea and trade routs

Found across Polynesian, Micronesian, and Melanesian islands, but are from the Lapita people from the Santa Cruz islands

1000 BCE

Could be used to serve food, used in trade or travel, shows what tools were used, represents the seafaring nature of the Lapita people

White Temple and its Ziggurat

Made of mud brick and Bitumen for waterproofing and white cedar

Elevated two stories on top of a ziggurat

The temple was made for the sky god, Anu

Found in the city of Uruk in Sumer, modern day Iraq, lion and leopard bones found beneath the temple buried

3500-3000 BCE

The Sumerian king went here to speak to Anu, shows the theocratic government of the time

Statues of Votive Figures

Carved into gypsum or limestone

1’-2’ tall, figure in the round, ringed beard, hierarchies of scale, negative space between legs and arms

All were positioned to be praying, wide eyes to represent constant wakefulness for the gods, clothed, inscriptions of the person’s name who is represented

Found in the square temple at Eshnunna in Sumer

2700 BCE

Created by artisans payed by people who wanted a place to pray in the temple, since average citizens weren’t allowed in

Standard of Ur

Made of expensive imported materials, lapis lazuli for the blue mosaic laid into a carved wooden base

3 registers, two sides, hierarchy of scale, twisted perspective, 20” long

One side was a part scene, the other side depicts war, new inventions like the wheel are shown, shows settled and organized societies, wealthy people in the top register, poor people in the bottom

Found in the royal tombs of Ur in Mesopotamia, modern day Iraq

2600-2400 BCE

Purpose is unknown, found buried with other lavish items, could have been used to carry items, could be a war celebration

Code of Hammurabi

Carved into basalt steel, stele

Foreshortening to create depth, low-relief, hierarchy of scale, stylized people, composite view with body facing front, face to the side

Depicts the god of justice, Shamash, talking to the Babylonian King, Hammurabi, handing over keys to lead, Shamash has lightning bolts, a measuring rod, coiled rope, and full beard

Found in the city of Susa, Iran, but is originally from Babylonia

1792-1750 BCE

300 lines of cuneiform text in Akkadian laid out rules for governing Babylonia, and is an early example of justice and legality

Lamassu

Carved from stone

Therian, human face, body of a bull, eagle wings, mythological lamassu motif, 14’ tall, symmetry

Depicts the Lamassu creature, from the front they are stationary and two feet are visible, from the side they are walking and four feet are visible, inscription between the legs warns of damnation to anyone who harms the Assyrian king'

Found in the Citadel of Sargon II, Iraq

720-705 BCE

Supported the citadel gates (7 gates total), made to guard and warn those who came near, Assyrians were very paranoid

Apadana (Audience Hall) Darius & Xerxes

Made with clay bricks and carved stone pillars

Elaborate building complex, hypostyle with 72 columns, 65’ tall, cosmopolitan and organized

Building complex on the top of a plateau, relief sculptures depicting Persian processions delivering gifts to a king, columns decorated with animals and symbols

Persepolis, Persia, modern day Iran

520-465 BCE

Served as a gathering hall for Persepolis, could fit 10,000 people, used for receptions and festivals, built so it could overlook the area and be marveled at, shows the power of the empire and the people’s loyalty to the king

Palette of King Narmer

Carved into Greywacke stone

Continuous narrative, twisted perspective, hierarchy of scale, 2’ tall, 2 sided, separated with register lines,

Depicts events in the reign of King Narmer, shows upper and lower Egypt, shows dead bodies, foes, serpapod myth, Falcon God Horus, sandal barers

Predynastic Egypt, temple of Hierakonpolis

3,000-2,920 BCE

Items in this shape were used as makeup palettes, typically just for black eye makeup, this palette was simply comemmorative for King Narmer

Seated Scribe

Carved and painted limestone, glass eyes, wooden nipples

1.5’ tall, realistic, idealized

Depicts an ideal scribe and a realistic person of the time

Saqqara, Egypt

2620-2500 BCE

Accompanied a burial, found in a tomb to accompany someone of high-ranking status, giving them a scribe to follow them into the afterlife

Great Pyramids and Sphinx

Carved into white limestone, pyramids are topped with gold, sphinx was painted red

Khufu is 480’ and has two chambers and several boat pits, Menkaure is 213’ with a complex interior with decorations, Khafre is 448’ on a 33’ plateau, lines up with stars and directions, sphinx is 66’, therian - pharaoh head on lion body

The pyramids are white and topped with gold to represent the soul going up, the sphinx is bright red to stand out in the dessert and honor cats, sphinx has purposeful pieces taken out of its face

Giza, Egypt

2550-2490 BCE

Modeled after ben-ben, symbol of the cult of Ra (sun), likely built to honor pharaohs and display their greatness

King Menkaure and Queen

Carved into Greywacke

Male and female figures, idealized, standing in pharaoh pose, originally painted

The figures show a man and a woman being gentle and affectionate, dressed in high class clothing and stylized hair, calm and happy expression

Giza, Egypt

2490-2472 BCE

No significant hierarchy of scale shows them being depicted as equal, likely created to show the King’s more personal side, vessel for the human spirit

Temple of Amun-Ra

Made of sandstone and mud bricks

Building complex featuring a hypostyle hall, clerestory windows, tons of columns

One of the largest religious complexes, reliefs that were once painted

Kamak, Egypt

1550-1250

Created as a religious center to worship Amun, Ra, and other gods, gods would come here and receive offerings from priests, represents the primeval waters of creation

Mortuary Tomb of Hatshepsut

Built from sandstone and red granite

Carved into a cliffside, columned terraces, ramps, 200 granite statues, 10 granite red statues 9’ tall

Elaborate gardens, lines up with Sun on the solstice, elaborate reliefs to show Hatshepsut’s reign

Near the Valley of Kings, Luxor, Egypt

1473-1458 BCE

Created to honor Queen Hatshepsut, the only female leader of ancient Egypt, she was controversial of her time and often depicted herself as male for respect, her relative tried to have her erased from history, but this temple proves her reign

Akhenaten, Nefertiti, 3 Daughters

Limestone

Relief, smooth contours, slaw jaws, thin limbs, androgynous bodies, relaxed expressions, Amama Period

Depicts a domestic scene between Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and 3 daughters, the Ankh symbol of life pointed toward them, affectionate scene, Aten god depicted giving off light

1353-1335 BCE

Egypt

Meant to normalize the new Amama Period art style to the public, Akhenaten shifted the state religion to declare Aten as the new and only god, shifted the art style and moved the capital from Thebes to Amama, found in a house, likely used as a decoration

Innermost Coffin of Tutankhamen

Gold, enamel, semi-precious stones, lapis lazuli

Stylized human face, vulture and winged snake motifs

6’ long, 500 lbs, two goddesses are etched into the lid, back is inscribed with spells from the Book of the Dead, 130 walking stickers were found with it, 1 of 3 coffins

1323 BCE

Egypt

Tombs were ritualistic and guided a soul into the afterlife, preserved bodies very well, coffins showed off wealth

Last Judgement of Hu-Nefer

Painted on papyrus

Register lines, twisted perspective, composite pose, continuous narrative, onc symbol of eternal life, hieroglyphs to tell the narrative

Shows Hu-Nefer being led through the the halls of demons and proclaiming innocence, then Anubis leading him to present his heart on the scale against the ostrich feather, Ammit eats the heart if it’s not pure

1275 BCE

Egypt

From the Book of the Dead that tells the stories of the afterlife and death process, Egyptians believed that the scariest part of life was if your heart wasn’t pure and you ceased to exist, the afterlife and purity of heart were very valued

Athenian Agora

Marble

Bouleuterion Chamber, Tholos emergency Senator meeting center, Stoas (walkways with columns and walls), Agora (outdoor plaza, governmental and sacred), Archaic-Hellenistic Greece

Plaza with several different separated locations, at the base of the acropolis

600-150 BCE

Athens, Greece

Held the Panathenaic Festival to celebrate Athena and dedicate a Peplos robe to her, political center to support Democracy, temples dedicated to Gods/Goddesses

Anavysos Kouros

Marble with paint, carved with iron tools

Patterned hair, archaic smile, pharaoh pose influence, kouros (male youth), idealized

Depicts an ideal young boy, has an inscription for his death

530 BCE

Athens, Greece

Marks a grave or acts as an offering/representation for a god

Peplos Kore

Marble with paint

Stylized hair, archaic smile, kore (female youth sculptures), static pose (goddess theory?)

Depicts a young woman of no known identity, clothed, found buried in 3 pieces, possibly damaged from a Persian siege, left arm is missing but she likely held something to identify her as a goddess, peplos shawl, snatched waist (adorns Athena), likely wore a star crown

530 BCE

Athens, Greece

Marked a grave/altar, meant to honor a goddess or depict a well-respected young woman

Niobides Krater

Red clay, white painted highlights, pottery wheel, polished

Overlapping figures, naturalized and fluid poses, contrapposto pose, isocephalism (no real ground)

One side depicts the murder of Niobe’s children by several gods after Niobe praised her children too much, other side is celebratory and honoring Heracles

460-450 BCE

Found in Italy, from Greece, shows trade

Used as a vessel for mixing wine and water, since water wasn’t safe to drink it was better to mix it with wine

Doryphoros (spear barer)

Marble, original in bronze

Contrapposto, idealized with 7 heads proportion, firm stance, stoic expression, transition between rigid Archaic style and Classical humanized style

Depicts an ideal man’s physique, likely held a spear and shield, has a support beam for his leg

450-440 BCE

Greece, made by Polykleitos

This sculpture would inspire classical work and early American work, this figure was very influential in his appearance, found in a gym, used as a good luck charm

Acropolis

Marble

Center point of city, stood above Athenian Agora

447-410 BCE

Athens, Greece, likely made by Ikintos & Kallikrates

Taken over by Persians and future rulers

Temple of Athena Nike:

Ionic columns, frieze depicting marathon events, amphiprostyle with four columns in front and back

Entrance of Acropolis, honored Nike, the goddess of victory, commemorative for Greek’s victory over Persians, covered with images of Nike such as the frieze relief of her adjusting her sandal - shows her humanized, balanced, with wet drapery, and taking her shoes off before she enters the temple

Parthenon

Idealized proportions, illusion to appear straight from below, Doric and Ionic columns

Once housed 40’ Athena statue of gold and ivory, pediment and frieze sculptures for Athena and depictions of Greek battles, curved floor to avoid rain buildup, Plaque of Ergastines who presented the peplus cloth to Athena statue, Isocephalism (heads on the same level), meant to be seen from below so it used deeper carvings, Helius, Horses, and Dioysis - Elgin Marbles, triangle composition, originally on a pediment, uses contrapposto and wet drapery, depicts the birth of Athena from Zeus’s head as other gods observe

Grave Stele of Hegeso

Marble and paint

Hierachy of scale, wet drapery, pillars and pediment

Hegeso is looking at jewlery that was presented to her, everyday life setting

410 BCE

Greece

Made for Kallimachos, depicts Hegeso looking at her dowry since she never married while she was alive, grave marker

Winged Victory (Nike) of Samothrace

Marble

Contrapposto, twisted torso, fluidity and movement, dramatic negative space, wet drapery

Over 9’ tall, Nike standing up against wind currents, missing her head and arms, very damaged and reconstructed over time

190 BCE

Sanctuary of Great Gods, Greece

Made to stand on the bow of a ship, poised in a fountain, faced out toward the coast, likely to guide maritime missions

Great Altar of Zeus & Athena

Marble

Ionic columns, high reliefs, Hellenistic expressions

Massive stairs up to a platform, 8’ x 400’ low frieze depicting Gods conquering the giants who were trying to control Earth, Athena grabs a giant while Nike crowns her, Giants express a lot of pain and anguish, parallels the battles of Greeks against Persians and Gauls

175 BCE

Pergamon, Asia minor, Turkey

Made to honor victories of the Greek Gods, specifically Zeus and Athena

Alexander Mosaic

Mosaic, thousands of tiles

Foreshortening, multiple angles, emphasis through highlighting, rounded figures, tonal gradation, overlapping figures

Depicts the Battle of Issus, Alexander the Great defeats the Persians, King Darius retreats from the fight, Alexander is calm and focused while Darius is horrified as one of his men is impaled

100 BCE

House of Faun, Pompeii

Made to model a Greek mural that had been burned, depicted Alexander the Great is a very powerful way, made as decoration

Seated Boxer

Bronze - rare since most bronze sculptures were melted down

Hellenistic exaggerated expression, negative space, aged

Depicts a boxer after his defeat, bloody and wounded, looking up at his opponent, wearing leather thong gloves, slumped

100 BCE

Found in a gym, Greece

Typically served as a good luck charm to feel before working out

Temple of Minerva & Sculpture of Apollo

Mud brick, tufa, and wood for the temple, terracotta sculpture

Influences from Archaic Greece, Doric temples with bases (tuscan capitals), contrapposto, archaic smile, idealized

Temple was raised on a podium and had three entrances leading to a small room, temples were placed on the roof

Veii, Italy, from Etruria, likely made by Vulcan of Veii

510-500 BCE

Temple has decayed over time, was made to honor gods such as Apollo

Sarcophagus of the Spouses

Terracota

Triclinium, ostrich egg to symbolize after life, made in two pieces

Depicts a married couple reclining and eating together at a banquet

Cerveteri, Italy

520 BCE

Made to honor the married couple and hold their remains , showed them as happy to portray the afterlife as more cheerful

Tomb of the Triclinium

Tufa (porous, limestone-like rock) and fresco paintings

Tricliniums were often depicted, circles that symbolized the circle of life, geometric shape motifs

Depicts lively and joyous scenes like reclining on triclinium (banquet couches), instruments, rural settings, a lot of geometric patterns, men were painted darker than women

Tarquinia, Italy

480-470 BCE

Served as a tomb for the Etruscans, funerary services were joyful rather than somber, many tombs were painted similarly

House of the Vetti

Cut stone and fresco paintings, marble fountains

4th Pompeiian style with borders and depth illusions, Peristyle halls and gardens, 100m², open atrium area with a skylight, narrow entrance

Wealthy and showy house owned by two brothers to display their money through elaborate decorations

Pompeii, Italy

300-200 BCE

Pompeii was stinky, so no exterior windows were used, only skylights provided light, completely preserved from ash, the house provides information about Pompeii and the Imperial Rome area

Head of a Roman Patrician

Marble

Verism, Hellenistic exaggeration, idealized

Shows a bust of an ideal Senator from the Rome Republic, subject was likely young but depicted old and wrinkly to be assumed wise

Rome

75-50 BCE

Busts were commissioned for families to keep as proof of lineage and to brag about their relations to noble and powerful people

Augustus (Octavian) of Prima Porta

Marble - original in bronze

Contrapposto, crater’s pose

Shows the first ruler of the Roman Empire, Octavian, and Cupid baby riding a dolphin by his feet

From Prima Porta, Rome

20 CE

Octavian is depicted as very powerful, barefoot because he’s standing on sacred ground, wearing a toga and a decorated breastplate with symbols showing his achievements and power

Colosseum (Flavian Ampitheater)

Stone and concrete, originally marble

Arches, barrel and groin valuts, doric, ionic, and corinthian columns

80 entrances, 3 tiers, modeled after Greek architecture, built to hold 50,000 people, subterranean vaults to hold prisoners and wild animals, canvas roof to shield from the Sun

Rome, Italy, Imperial Rome

72-80 CE

Used to host spectacles, battle re-enactments, gladiator fights, wild beast fights, executions, would sometimes fill with water for naval re-enactments, higher class people at the bottom, lower class people at the top

Forum of Trajan

Brick and concrete

Continuous narrative (column of Trajan), clerestory windows (Basilica Ulpia), groin and barrel vaults (Market of Trajan)

Forum has a ceremonial entrance and large statue of Trajan, and marble columns, Basilica Ulpia was a massive columned, roofed structure that inspired a lot of early churches, Column of Trajan is a spiral staircase with 625’ relief and is 125’, with 2,500 figures and 150 scenes, a lot of detail, Market of Trajan is a collection of 150 shops, public works offices, multiple levels and floors

Rome, Italy

110 CE

Main square was used for ritual business and civil meet-ups like Senator meetings, Column of Trajan as used to show Roman battles and honor Trajan, also being a grave marker, the Market of Trajan was a market and office center, and the entire forum was used to show Roman stability and display power and wealth under Trajan leadership

The Pantheon

Concrete with stone facing

Greek facade elements, coffers - concentric squares to reduce ceiling’s weight, cupula - hemispherical dome, 20’ thick, thickness decreases with height, oculus - 27’ hole in the ceiling to add light, columns, pediment, frieze

Ornately decorated, tiled floors, painted ceiling with spots for statue of gods and deified emperors, huge dome

Rome, Italy

118-125 CE

Was used as a place for Catholic worship and burial place for Italian Kings, heavily influential in the Italian Renaissance

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus

Marble

Horror Vacui - extremely crowded with confusion and chaos of battle, Orator’s pose, very high relief

Depicts Romans(shaven, armored, holding weapons, and Celts (bearded, unarmed), no consistent proportion or perspective

Late Imperial Rome, Italy

250 CE

Shows the conquest and subjugation of the time, displays the struggle to maintain power as the Roman Empire fell

Catacomb of Priscilla

Stone and dirt?

Tufa and fresco, extended hundreds of miles, Greek inscriptions, Pompeiian style, Roman influence, low-resource paint materials, narrative paintings

Orant Fresco depicts Christ (possibly first depiction) in a pastoral scene with doves and other peace symbols, Old testament stories like Abraham sacrificing Isaac and Jonah and the whale, the Good Shepherd Fresco shows a good Christian in an orator’s pose

Rome, Italy

200-400 CE

The catacombs were a place for Christians to hide from persecution, made in honor of Priscilla, the wife of a martyr who donated the land, tombs were held in small niches (coculi) for the poor, and ornate chapels (cubicula) for the rich

Santa Sabina

Brick, stone, wooden roof

Spolia (recycling of artwork/building), former Roman basilica, coffered ceiling to support weight, concentric octagons, corinthian columns, clerestory windows, archave (repeated arches), Eucharist (bread and wine) motif

A basic exterior once covered in mosaic, with a wide interior ornately decorated to

Rome, Italy

422-432 CE

Supported a wide congregation of men in the center and women along the sides, light and airy interior, a lot of light because it symbolizes divinity

Basilica of San Vitale

Brick, marble, and stone

Octagonal and central plans, Roman domes and mosaics, Byzantine columns, capitals, flying buttresses, airy interior

Ornate interior, shrine for the spot Saint Vitalis was martyred

526-547 CE

Ravenna, Italy

Commissioned by Justinian to show his power, place of worship

Mosaics:

Justinian & Attendants

Military on the left, church clergy on the right, Justinian in the middle, idolized Justinian, symmetrical, standardized faces, overlapping feet, Justinian wearing Tyrian purple, symbol of high royalty

Theodora & Attendants

Asymmetrical suggesting Theodora is not central in her power, chalice for mass, heavy ornaments of jewelry, purple robes

Vienna Genesis

Pigment on cow skin vellum, tyrian purple and silver text

Soft figures, foreshortening, contrapposto, shallow settings, continuous narrative

Narratives to tell stories from the bible

700 CE

Syria?

Earliest surviving copy of the bible, shows society in transition from classical to Christian medieval

Jacob Wrestling an Angel

ground lines creating almost register lines, Roman architecture/columns, Byzantine figures with flattened figures and heavy clothing

Rebecca and Eliezar at the Well

Personification of water, Water Goddess, continuous narrative of Rebecca giving water to camels

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child Between the Saints Theodore and George

Encaustic on wood

Icons, halos for divinity, stiff and front-facing, classical faces, symmetrical composition, heavy drapery and weird feet, flattened proportions, stylized, different styles showing more than one person worked on it, old man Jesus to show his wisdom

Painting depicting the Virgin Mary and Saints surrounding baby Jesus, God’s hand and angels depicted in the back, warrior saints

700-800 CE

Sinai, Egypt

Created to display and honor the divinity of Mary and Jesus

Pyxis of al-Mughira

Carved ivory

Horror Vacui

Kuffic script, depictions of people. geometric and floral motif patterns

968 CE

Muslim Spain, Ummayad Caliphate

Created as a gift to a caliph’s son, vessel for perfumes and aromatics, secular work, durable, high-status

Mosque of Cordoba

Stone Masonry

Hypostyle, spolia, ancient Roman columns, repetition, dome supported by elaborate squinches

Mihrab pointing toward Damascus, Kufic calligraphy on the walls

785 CE

Umayyad Caliphate, Spain, Visigoth rule

Built over a church, oranges planted in Sahn (courtyard) to remind the prince of Saudi Arabia, powerful and ornate

Alhombra

Whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint

Incredibly detailed - Hall of the Sisters ornately decorated with repetition and muqarnas (carved brackets), and Court of the Lions with a central fountain, thin columns, and intricate carvings

Gardens, fountains, courtyards, three separate palaces, Alcazabra are barracks for guards, Medina is the residence and workplace for court officials, “Only God is victorious” written over 9,000 times

1238-1358 CE

Granada, Spain, Nasrid Dynasty, developed by future societies

Built as a palace for royalty, workplace, developed by different caliphates, eventually housed Ferdinand and Isabella

Hagia Sophia

Brick, ceramic, stone, mosaic

Domes and pendentives, central and axial church plans, Greek and Roman column influences, illusion that dome is flying

Walls covered in gold and mosaic, rebuilt after suffering fires and damages

532-537 CE

Constantinople (now Istanbul), Turkey

Largest capital under the Byzantine, religious and political center, believed to have healing powers, originally Christian under Justinian, now Muslim

Mosque of Selim II

Brick and stone

Central plan, inspired by the Hagia Sophia

Contained libraries, schools, government buildings, open and big mosque

1570 CE

Edirne, Turkey

Commissioned by Selim, Ottoman Empire, built to surpass all built before it and impress Western European travellers

Merovingian Looped Fibulae

Silver gilt, semi-precious stones, glass mosaics, garret inlays, Chasing (patterns created by hammering)

Zoomorphic, Cloisonne (partitioning, stones laid in), Ichthys - early underground Christian motif

550 CE

Merovingian Dynasty, France

Made to pin garments and clothes, popularized in the Roman Empire, meant to show off wealth

The Book of Lindisfarne

Ink, pigment, gold on vellum

Stylized, Hibero-Saxon art, illuminated manuscript, Latin text, animal style (interlaced complex animals)

Oldest surviving manuscript of the Gospel, has a colophon used to tell exactly who contributed to the manuscript and what they did

700 CE

England

Meant to tell the stories of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, primarily through pictures and patterns, English was added 250 years later so more people could read it

Carpet page of St. Matthew

horror vacui, knotted dog-headed snakes and long necked birds, symmetrical and balanced, Celtic and Christian influence, background shows a cross

Saint Luke Portrait

image vitul (traditional symbol of St. Luke), Hagios Lucas, beard to show status, purple to show royalty

Church of Sainte-Foy

Stone

Cruciform (cross-shaped) ground plan, clerestory windows, barrel vaults, columns from Rome, Campanile wall summons people to prayer

Large, elaborate cathedral with multiple entrances, two turrets, three chapels

1050-1130 CE

Conques, France, on the route to Santiago de Compostelo

Made for a lot of people to congregate within, housed the reliquary statue of Sainte-Foy, easy to control crowds with the floor plan, attracts people on pilgrimage

Tympanum of the Last Judgement

Semi-circular stone above the door, shows Christ as a judge gesturing to those going to Heaven vs. Hell, hierarchy of scale, registers, flattened figures, heavy drapery, painted stone, serves as a warning to Christians

Reliquary Statue of Sainte-Foy

Gold, metals and gems, wood base, holds Foy’s head, a young girl who was martyred for refusing a Pagan ritual, added to over time by patrons, has enlarged hands and a head

The Bayeux Tapestry

Embroidered linen

continuous narrative, flattened, little perspective/detail, natural background, limited palettes, top & bottom borders, registers

Everyday scenes, fantastical creatures, 230’ long, 600 people and 75 scenes

1066-1080 CE

Bayeux, France

Made to depict William the Conqueror’s conquest of England, Battle of Hastings, commissioned by William’shalf-brother, the Bishop of Odo, likely designed by a man and then made by a woman

Chartres Chapel

Limestone and stained glass

Originally Romanesque, rebuilt with Gothic influences, North side is Romanesque, South side is Gothic, rib vault ceiling, jambfigures of saints/apostles in the doorjambs, elaborate timpanums of the life of Mary, naturalistic and soft features

Two spindrels (left is Romanesque, right is Gothic), enlarged choir space, elaborate stained-glass windows with expensive pigments

1145-1155 CE

Chartres, France

Hosted elaborate and huge ceremonies, dedicated to Mary, held the Saint Ann reliquary (Mary’s mom), and tunic of the Virgin Mary from when she gave birth to Jesus (Santa Camisia)

Notre Dame de la Bella Verriere

Stained glass windows to let in divine light, undamaged in original fire, shows Mary crowned as queen of Heaven with Jesus in her lap, large images of saints up high, lang and laborous process to create it, narrative for those who couldn’t read, glass made, cut, painted

Moralized Bible

Pigments on vellum

Illuminated manuscript, registers, bright colors

Illustrates the bible line by line, depicts “good” Christian characters and “bad” foreign characters

13th century

France and Spain

Gives a modernized version of old biblical stories, illustrates the bible and provides relevant commentary, colors and compositions are meant to emulate stained glass windows, very expensive, created for the Blanche of Castille and her son, Louis IX

Golden Haggadah

Pigments on vellum

Heavy Christian stylistic elements, heavy drapery, enlarged heads and hands, long bodies, contemporary settings and architecture

Depicts the Passover story, showing the exodus and plagues, read right to left

1320 CE

Medieval Spain

Commissioned by wealthy Jewish patrons, used for celebrating Passover as it guides Seders

Rottgen Pieta

Wood and paint

Andactshild (made for private decoration, not worship), humanized Jesus, stigmata to show injuries, warped proportions

Shows the pieta scene of Mary holding Jesus’s lifeless body over her legs, Jesus is skinny and emaciated, has thorns on his head and wounds all over his body

1300 CE

Germany

Made to humanize Jesus and depict him suffering, as opposed to previous depictions always showing him as strong, Jesus’s misery resonated with the European people who were suffering due to political turmoil and the plague

Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel

Brick and fresco

Trompe l’oeil: painting to resemble marble

Chapel built over a Roman arena, part of the Scrovegni Chapel, excessive ultramarine usage, very spacious interior, bland exterior, elaborate paintings on the walls

1303

Famous painter: Giotto, Padua, Italy

Commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni to atone for his father’s economic sins and beg Jesus and God for forgiveness by painting Christian narratives all over the interior walls

Lamentation Scene

Depicts figures surrounding Mary and a lifeless Jesus, uses foreshortening, depth, and back-facing people which is a major breakthrough and shows Giotto’s experimentation with perspective, Jesus is not in the center like he normally is

Adam and Eve

Engraving

Contrapposto, classical sculpture influence, idealized proportions

Depicts Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, a scene from Genesis where Eve eats the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge, surrounded by animals including the snake, has the artists signature

1504

Germany, Altrecht Dürer

The animals represent the four humors: cat-choleric, rabbit-sanguine, ox-phlegmatic, elk-melancholic, goat represents evil, mouse represents male weakness, parrot represents cleverness and mary giving birth

The Allegory of Law and Grace

Woodcut and letterpress, recreation of a painting

Protestant influences, bisected with a tree

Depicts the Last Judgement and Law, Moses and the ten commandments, and a skeleton and satan chasing a man into hell on the left, and a figure bathing in Jesus’s blood, and Jesus also emerging from his tomb on the right

1530

Germany, Lucas Cranach the Elder

The left represents Catholicism and Judaism, emphasizing the gospel and damnation through too much focus on money rather than devotion to God, the left represents Protestantism and being led to salvation through honoring the achievements of God

Merode Alterpiece - Annunciation

Oil on oak panel

Triptych, awkward perspective, humanized

Depicts the scene of Mary learning from the angel Gabriel that she will be the mother of God’s son, first picture are the patrons of the painting on the outside of the building, in the middle are Mary and Gabriel in a domestic setting, and on the right is Joseph in a carpentry workshop

1427-1428

Netherlands, Robert Campin

A small figure flies toward Mary, holding a cross to represent the Holy Spirit, the guard walls around the house represent Mary’s chastity, the fireplace is the entrance to Hell, the three flowers are the Holy Trinity, the wood items Joseph makes are Satan traps, everything was symbolism because Christianity couldn’t be depicted

The Arnolfini Portrait

Oil on wood

Signature, Christian symbolism

Depicts a couple that has just married or possibly a memorial portrait, they stand in a room in front of a mirror

1434

Belgium, Jan Van Eyck

The elaborate fabrics and lace represent wealth, the single candle represents God’s presence, the dog represents fidelity, the roundrels in the back show biblical scenes, oranges must have been imported, praying St. Margaret of fertility on the bed, the man is near the window to show his role as a worker, the woman is by the bed to show her domestic role, the shoes are taken off to show they’re on holy ground, people shown in the mirror behind them

The Isenheim Altarpiece

Oil on wood

Registers, separated scenes, movable parts

11’ high, 1st panel shows Jesus suffering ergotism, 2nd panel showing Marian symbols and the resurrection, 3rd panel showing St. Anthony desert sojourn and temptation, predella (base) is the deposition and lamentation, the back is highlights of Christ’s life

1512-1516

Germany, Matthias Grünewald

Served as a decoration in a hospital for ergotism, a fungal skin disease, Jesus was shown suffering it to sympathize with the patients, Jesus’s resurrection showed he was freed from the suffering, instilled hope in the patients and encouraged faith

Hunters in the Snow

Oil on wood panel

Atmospheric perspective, landscape, anonymous people, part of a series, sharp, unblended colors

Shows a group of hunters overlooking a community scene in the winter, people on ice and many houses below the hill wher e the hunters stand

1565

Germany, Peter Bruegel the Elder

Meant to represent the good and bad parts of the season, good being the community and winter activities, bad being the hunters inability to catch anything, high horizon line so the viewer’s eye wanders around the painting

Pazzi Chapel

Masonry

Two parallel vaults, dome in center, Oculus, round windows at dome base, pilasters (fake columns attached to walls), roundrels, pendentives, terracota tiles with blues and grays

Chapel attached to Santa Croce church

1423

Florence, Italy, Filippo Brunelleschi (famous architect)

Commissioned by the wealthy Brunelleschi family, meeting house for monks, place for personal worship and devotion, resembles the Pantheon

Palazzo Rocellai

Stone, masonry

Pilasters, different type on each floor, Tuscan, Ionic, Corinthian, square windows, arches, open atrium (similar to House of the Vetti), friezes with Ruccelai sails

House taking up an entire block in the city, lavish building with three floors

1450

Florence, Italy, Leon Baltista Alberti (famous architect)

Made to resemble to colosseum, 1st floor business, 2nd and 3rd floors are private quarters, order, harmony, and geometric grace

Madonna and Child with Two Angels

Tempera on wood

Window and frame illusion (trompe l’oeil), landscape, humanistic

Mary and baby Jesus depicted, two angels holding up Jesus, Mary is solemn and praying, landscape in background, slight halo over Mary

1465

Florence, Italy, Fra Filipo Lippi

Playful Jesus to look like a kid not an old man, both young and realistic, pearls and pillows represent Mary’s immaculate conception, city on the left to represent Jerusalem, rock formations meant to resemble a church

The Birth of Venus

Tempera on canvas

Contrapposto, departure from Christian imagery with female nudity, revival of Greek goddesses, flat background and lack of perspective

Shows Venus being born from the sea, west winds and a nymph to her left

1485

Sandro Botticelli

The roses represent the chaos of love, Venus represents love and also modesty, shows her birth

David

Bronze casting (revival from Rome!)

Roman influence, somewhat androgynous, exaggerated contrapposto

Shows David after he killed Goliath, standing in a sassy pose, Goliath’s head under his foot, holding a sword

1440-1460

Florence, Italy, Donatello

Likely made for the Medici palace, shows him proud, but also shows modesty from the downcast eyes, hat is in a renaissance design

The Last Supper

Tempera and oil (they don’t mix, it’s falling apart)

Fresco, linear perspective, vanishing point on Jesus, attempt of chiaroscuro (sharp contrasts between dark and light), individualized, dynamic poses, arcadian setting (ideal) background, grouping of threes, eucharist motif of bread and wine,

Shows Jesus and the 12 apostles at the last supper before the crucifixion, directly after Jesus says “one of you will betray me”

1494-1498

Milano, Italy, Leonardo Da Vinci

Jesus and Judas reaching for the same bowl represents the eminent betrayal, groupings of 3 represents the Holy trinity and becomes a trend, commissioned for a refectory (dining hall) over where monks eat

The Sistine Chapel

Frescoes

Complicated arrangements, emphasis on anatomy, dramatic gestures, large figures, dynamic, narratives from the Old Testament, ignudi (random naked men), idealized figures

Ceiling and backwall frescoes, depicted scenes from the Old Testament, some Pagan stories, Greco-Roman symbols and figures, acorn motifs (crest of Pope Julius II)

1508-1512, then 1536-1541

Vatican City, Michelangelo (Botticelli and Pereguino also contributed)

New popes are elected in the chapel, Michelangelo is commissioned by Pope Julius II who he hates, Michelangelo was gay so he conflicted with the church, did his last fresco extremely late out of spite

Notable frescoes:

Creation of Adam

• God is in a cross section of the brain, is he made up?

Delphic Sybil

• Pagan, one of 5 sybils/prophetesses (fortune tellers fore-telling the coming of Christ)

• premonition and prophecy were common christian themes

• Greco-Roman figure inspiration, paranoid, male model was used, biblical beauty, Greek turban, contrapposto, humanism, knowledge of anatomy

The Flood (The Deluge)

• story of Noah, survivors clinging to mountaintops as the arc is built in the background

• dramatic range of emotions, varied expressions and poses, clumped figures

• igundi in the four corners

• atmospheric perspective, unbalanced

Altar Wall Frescoes

• mannerist era

• end of Michelangelo’s life

• The last judgement

• horror vacui

• Top Banner: crucifixion, Mid 1: heaven around Jesus, Mid 2: some people rise, some descend, Bottom: dead rising, shows entrance to Hell

• reflective of the chaos and disunity

• a lot of creative liberties, buff Jesus with no beard???, crazy weather, naked people

• draperies painted on after Michelangelo’s death

The School of Athens

Fresco

Linear perspective, classical architectural designs, arches, statues, columns, clear, open light setting

Depicts Ancient Greek philosophers among modern philosophers on the same level

1509-1511

Apostolic Palace, Vatican City, Raphael

Commissioned for Pope Julius II’s library, hung over the philosophy section to represent the books, showed modern connections to past beliefs, gestures and clothing represent the philosopher’s views

Venus of Urbino

Oil on canvas, vermillion and ultramarine blues (from Silk Road

Chiaroscuro, softer manner, arcadian setting, recling female nude trend, sfumato

Depicts a nude woman laying on a bed, facing the viewer, seductive gaze, covering in between her legs with her hands, holding roses, a dog lay by her feet, a maid and child doing laundry in the back

1538

Venice, Italy, Titian

Commissioned by a husband for his new wife, meant to show how his wife should be, modest, dog represents loyalty, roses represent love and sensuality, women doing chores in the back to show how she should work for him

Entombment of Christ

Oil on wood

Circular composition, mannerist, ragdoll effect with limbs, weightlessness, inaccurate proportions, crouched and twisted composition, flattened 3D space, inconsistent light/shadows, no ground line or linear perspective, acidic colors

Depicts a group of people in the scene following Jesus’s removal from the cross as his dead body is held and his followers cry out

1525-1528

Florence, Italy, Jacopo de Pontormo

Represents the chaos of society in the mannerist era, placed in an altarpiece in a chapel

Facade of Il Jesu

Brick and marble

Classical architecture, mannerist exterior, ionic pilasters, timpanums, framing niches

Church building, white

1575-1584

Rome, Italy, Giacomo della Porta

Marks a transition between mannerist and baroque styles, mother church of Jesuit orders, Jesuits were priests that opposed the reformation

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

Stone and stucco (inexpensive and malleable material for building)

Retrofitted into a smaller space, baroque, soft corners, coffered oval dome ceiling, corinthian columns, niches, floating dome effect, modified central plan

Irregularly shaped chapel to fit a small space on the street, in a square with four fountains, highly decorated, wavy exterior, white and gold trims

1638-1646

Rome, Italy, Francesco Borromini

Small, but a major symbol of baroque architecture, small monastery for monks

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

Marble, stucco and gilt bronze chapel

Tenebrism, warm glow against dark chapel, classical inspiration, dramatized

Depicts Sainte Teresa getting stabbed in the “heart” by an angel and experiencing a lot of satisfaction and sensual pleasure, theatre boxes with patrons surround the statue, theatre stage is set up

1647-1652

Cornaro Chapel, Rome, Italy, Gian Lorenzo Bernini

Bernini was very interested in theatre, inspiration is taken from Saint Teresa’s diary, Teresa was obsessed with God’s love and would hurt herself to recreate the pain Jesus felt

The Palace of Versailles

Masonry, stone, wood, iron, gold leaf, marble and bronze sculptures

700+ rooms

Elaborate palace designed around Louis XIV’s room, architecture meant to look like sunrays off of the central bedroom, included a chapel, dozens of court apartments, living spaces for servants and staff, opera house, gardens and greenery

1631-18th century

Right outside of Paris, France, Louis Le Vau & Jules Hardouin-Marsart, Andre le Notre

Built to house Louis XIV and honor his achievements, as well as show off his lavish lifestyle, gardens would be the staple of modern landscaping, showed major gap between lower and upper French people (what would they end up doing about it?)

Hall of Mirrors

• 240’ corridor

• Barrel vaults

• Ceiling paintings to show Louis’ achievements

• Lined with large, expensive glass panels

• Held court events and receptions, very showy

Marble Courtyard

• Elaborate and more ornate than the front

• Covered in gold leaf

The Calling of Saint Matthew

Oil on canvas

Crowded figures, Baroque style clothing, tenebrism

Depicts people inside a tavern, counting money, looking sketchy, Jesus with a faint halo points at Matthew, who points at himself, a light source points and illuminates Saint Matthew

1600

Rome, Italy, Caravaggio

Meant to show average people could turn away from sin and be saved, shows Matthew getting called out for his shady behavior and turning toward Jesus, Caravaggio was alternative and controversial for his time, he showed the darker sides of Christianity, one of 3 paintings made to show St. Matthew’s life

Triumph in the Name of Jesus

Stucco and fresco

Foreshortening to make figures appear coming down toward the viewer, 3D illusion, trompe-l’oeil di sotto in sú (from below to above), painted shadows, bright lights

Depicts damned being cast into Hell, angels ascend

1661-1679

Il Gesu, Rome, Giovanni Battista Gaulli

Dramatic because of Bernini influence, showed damned falling into the chapel below, Jesus monogram of IHS

Las Meninas

Oil on canvas

Tenebrism, atmospheric perspective, dense bottom and a lot of negative space at the top, asymmetrical composition, candid moment, 10’ x 9’

Depicts Infanta Margharita of Spain in the center, surrounded by a dog, two dwarves, her servants, nuns and clergy, her parents (either in a mirror or in a painting on the wall), and the painter himself working on a painting beside them

1656

Madrid, Spain, Diego Velasquez

Infanta Margharita was a member of the Habsburg family who were severely inbred but very wealthy, Velasquez worked as their court painter and was commissioned to paint them in pretty clothing and make them look more attractive than they were, the dwarves on the side were used for entertainment

Henry IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de Medici

Oil on canvas

Roman and Christian figures

Shows the scene of Henry IV receiving the portrait of Marie de Medici whom he would marry, Juno and Jupiter, Cupid and Hymen, a woman with masculine features, cherubs

1625

Peter Paul Ruben

One of 21 paintings of Marie de Medici’s life, a lot of her life was made up, Henry IV didn’t even like her or attend the wedding, he was very unfaithful to her, Juno and Jupiter symbolize unity even though they were unfaithful to each other, Cupid and Hymen represent love, the woman behind Henry represents France urging him to choose love over war, helmet and shield are being cast aside

Self Portrait with Saskia

Etching/sketch

Northern European Baroque intimacy and quietness, preliminary art, non-contemporary clothes

Depicts Rembrandt with his wife sitting next to each other, both staring at the viewer, Rembrandt’s signature on the top corner

1636

Leiden, Netherlands, Rembrandt

Personal, intimate sketch not meant for public view, shows a private and domestic moment between Rembrandt and his wife Saskia

Woman Holding a Balance

Oil on canvas

Intimate, sparsely illuminated space, tenebrism, clear and highly rendered textures, balance, Northern Baroque influence, dark and muted colors, vanitas theme of falling beauty and brevity of life

Depicts a young woman holding a balance on a table, the window slightly illuminates her, gold on the table, Last Judgement painting behind her

1664

Netherlands, Johannes Vermeer

Balance of wealth and piety, center of the balance is in the exact center of the painting, balance represents judging along with the painting

Fruits and Insects

Oil on wood

Tenebrism, still life, creative liberties, dramatic lights, vanitas motif, asymmetrical

Shows various fruits and vegetables arranged on a table surrounded by brightly colored bugs, very vibrant contrasted against a dark background

1711

Netherlands, Rachel Rusych

Grapes and wheat symbolize the eucharist, the fly eating away at the fruit symbolizing the vanitas theme, this was created for personal decoration, Rusych had the opportunity to be an artist since she could study off of her dad who was a botanist and studied anatomy, many female artists lacked this opportunity since they couldn’t be alone with men for art lessons

Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza

Pigment on paper

Registers, eagle and cactus motif

Depicts daily life and battle scenes of the Aztecs, founding of Tenochtitlan, conquests, leaders, shows nine founders and one priest doing blood-letting, X for the intersection of two waterways

1542

Native artists, Aztec Empire, Modern day Mexico city

Commissioned for Antonio de Mendoza, viceroy of New Spain, meant to show Charles IV what Aztec life was like, food to show their agricultural prosperity, eagle landing on cactus was their sign to settle that land for the Aztecs, part of a codex (book) of tributes to the Aztecs

Angel with Arquebus, Asiel Timer Dei

Oil on canvas

Secret depiction of angels (-siel means angel), Mannerist and Baroque influence from clothing and dramatic pose, influence of pre-columbian Aztec winged figures, Spanish aristocratic clothing, gold threads

Shows a subtle angel with lavish Spanish clothing and elongated features pointing a gun upwards

1680

Andes region, Master of Calamarca

Angel depiction was banned since 1550, so depictions were subtle now, shows Spanish and native influence in art, celestial, aristocratic, and military combination, guardian figure

Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and Hunting Scenes

Tempera and resin on wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl (encorchadas)

Folding, free-standing biombos, encorchadas inspired by Asian work, hierarchy of scale, bug red pigments

One side shows a war scene and the Habsburg family victory, the other side is less chaotic and shows a hunting scene, pastoral setting for private viewers

1697-1701

Modern-day Mexico, circle of the Gonzolez family

Shows Japan influence coming to the New World, inspirations from Asian lacquer work, honors the Habsburg family, created as a room divider, separated male and female audiences

Virgin of Guadelupe

Oil on canvas on wood, mother-of-pearl inlay

Roundrels, econchadas, eagle and cactus motif

Shows the Guadelupe event where Juan Diego encounters Mary on a hill where an Aztec shrine is, roses bloom everywhere, he goes to tell the archbishop, roses fall out of his tunic and Mary’s image appears, and he follows Mary’s orders to build Mary a shrine on that hill

1698

Spain, Miguel Gonzalez

Used as a symbol of aid and guidance in Mexican culture, very iconic, always depicted standing on a crescent moon held up by angels, illuminated by sun rays, 12 star crown, dark skin depiction made her appreciated by the Mexicans, created for export and reverence

Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo

Oil on canvas

Casta painting, informal and stereotypical

Shows a white Spaniard and a native woman and their mixed child against a dark background

1715

New Spain, Juan Rodriguez

Part of a series of 16 paintings showing what New Spain was like to Old Spain, the paintings illustrated the caste system which held white couples at the top and enslaved people at the bottom, mestizo children were stereotyped as humble, quiet, and simple, inspired by racist Enlightenment thinking that statues was based off biological race

Portrait of Sor Juana Ines dela Cruz

Oil on canvas

Symbols of wealth and intelligence, escudo (framed oval painting)

Shows Sister Ines in her library reading and wearing religious clothes

1750

Mexico, Miguel Cabrera

Shows Sister Ines, who became a nun to avoid marriage, published and read books, primarily theatre and poetry, very intelligent and taught other girls in the New World, headdress to show her nun habit, painted from her self portrait, purchased by admirers after her death

Chavin de Huantar

Stone and granite

Sides aligning with four cardinal directions, break in the Andes mountains, pilgrimage point

200’ tall, 10,000’ above sea level, two main buildings, old and new temple, sunken plazas for gatherings, flanked a river

900-200 BCE

Northern Highlands River, Peru, Chavin Empire

Powerful center, influential pilgrimage point

Lanzon Spear Lintel

-contains a hidden entrance in the old temple, with over a mile of tunnels underground

-acoustics used to project words of the gods

-lanzon spear is likely the patron deity

-15’ tall, blade shaped, low relief

-resembles a digging tool used for highland agriculture

-figure looks up and down connecting heaven and earth, cut on forehead to allow bloodletting and liquid offerings

-figure with human and animal features, jaguar face, snake head, claws, anthropomorphic

Nose Ornament

-worn by men and women

-gold alloy

-snake heads looking

-high status, indicates wealth or spiritual transformation

Granite Stone

-contour rivalry

-found in a stairway

-jaguar heads and snakes