U.S. Government: Separation of Powers, Federalism, and Congressional Structure

Separation of powers

The constitutional division of government authority into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent the concentration of power and protect liberty. Example: Congress writes laws, the president enforces them, and courts interpret them.

Impeachment

A formal process where the House of Representatives charges a federal official with misconduct and the Senate holds a trial to potentially remove them from office. Example: Bill Clinton was impeached in 1998.

Exclusive powers

Powers that belong only to the national government and are denied to the states under the Constitution. Example: Only Congress can declare war.

Concurrent powers

Powers that both federal and state governments can exercise at the same time. Example: Both can impose and collect taxes.

Grants

Federal funds provided to state or local governments to support specific programs, projects, or needs. Example: Federal money for building highways.

Incentives

Benefits, rewards, or funding offered by the government to encourage certain behaviors or policies. Example: Tax credits for buying electric cars.

Aid

Financial or material assistance given by the federal government to states, organizations, or individuals in need. Example: FEMA providing hurricane relief funds.

Revenue sharing

Federal funds given to state or local governments with few restrictions on how the money is spent. Example: State projects funded by federal dollars.

Mandates

Federal orders that require states or localities to take certain actions, sometimes without providing funding. Example: The Americans with Disabilities Act.

Categorical grants

Federal funds provided for a specific, narrowly defined purpose with strict usage guidelines. Example: Grants for school lunch programs.

Block grants

Federal funds given for broader purposes that give states more flexibility in how they spend the money. Example: Community development block grants.

Commerce Clause

Constitutional provision giving Congress the authority to regulate interstate and foreign trade. Example: Regulating trucking companies operating between states.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Grants Congress the power to pass laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers. Example: Creating the national bank to manage federal funds.

Enumerated powers

Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution as belonging to the federal government. Example: Coining and printing money.

Implied powers

Powers not directly stated in the Constitution but necessary to carry out enumerated powers. Example: Establishing the IRS to collect taxes.

State sovereignty

The authority of states to govern themselves on issues not specifically given to the federal government. Example: Setting their own education policies.

Senate

The upper chamber of Congress with 100 members serving 6-year terms, giving each state equal representation. Example: Confirms Supreme Court justices.

House

The lower chamber of Congress with 435 members serving 2-year terms, with representation based on state population. Example: Initiates revenue bills.

Constituency

The group of people an elected official is chosen to represent and serve. Example: A House member's district voters.

Coalition

An alliance of individuals, interest groups, or political parties working together for a shared goal. Example: Bipartisan coalition supporting a bill.

Term

The fixed length of time an elected official serves in office before another election. Example: A president's term lasts 4 years.