Psych Chapter 2

3 shared goals for psychologists

Measurement and description, understanding and prediction, application and control

Measurement and description

Requires one to create ways to measure what can be described from behavior

Understanding and Predictions

Using hypotheses to uncover understandings of behavior’s or phenomenon’s occurance

Hypothesis

Initial prediction with 2 or more variables (any measurable bit of information) that can be observed or tested

Application and control

Applying discoveries and research to everyday uses and problems

theory

connection or system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations

Steps in a Scientific Investigation

1\.) formulate a testable hypothesis

2\.) select research method and design the study

3\.) collect data

4\.) data analysis and conclusions

5\.) report findings

Operational definition

describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable and ensure the variable won't be influenced by outside forces

Data Collection techniques

Direct observation, Questionnaire, Interview, Psychological test, Psychological recording, Examination of archival records

Two Major advantages of scientific approach

Clarity in communication and relative intolerance of error

Experiments

Methods of research where variables can be controlled and observed through changes in another variable; Identifies cause-and-effect relationships

Independent Variable

Variable that is manipulated to influence outcome

Dependent Variable

Measurable outcome; Can’t change unless from the independent variable

Stanley Schachter

Questioned if people prefer to be around others or alone when one is feeling anxious, in which he discovered that they prefer to be around others. The independent variable was the anxiety level and the dependent was the desire to wait with others.

Experimental group

Group in an experiment that receives treatment and is tested

Control group

group in an experiement that does not receive treatment

Need for Experimental group and Control group

To note any observable differences caused by the independent variable. Both groups would have the same content aside from the outcome of the treatment in experimental group

Varying experiment designs

Experimental group is its own control group; multiple variables

Extraneous Variables

All other variables that are different from the independent variable that can impact the dependent variable

Cofounding of Variables

Variables that have connections between them that makes it difficult to differentiate the unique effect of each

Use of randomly assigned groups

For fairness and reduced bias in a study

Advantage of experimental research

Conclusions between variables can be made with cause-and-effect relationships; ensures that the participants in the experimental and control conditions would be alike on any extraneous variables involving their personal characteristics; it's possible to manipulate more than one independent variable in a single experiment to examine their joint effects on the dependent variable

Disadvantages of experimental research

Limitations in experiments; artificial; certain questions can’t be answered; ethics and practicality affect variables

Descriptive/correlational methods

Methods used for finding and explaining patterns of behavior and finding relations among variables

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without intervening directly with the subjects. Meaning they can view behavior in its natural environment.

Case Studies

In-depth investigations of specific topics that involve interviewing key people and analyzing related records, along with psychological testing. Can be subjective when selecting info

Psychological autopsies

Applying case studies to suicides

Surveys

Use of questionnaires or interviews to uncover info on certain parts of background and behavior

Advantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research

Explores and answers questions experimental research can’t; more ethical; broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists can study

Disadvantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research

Can’t control or manipulate cause and effect relationships; Can’t show variables are conclusively linked; uncontrollable factors can affect the real understanding of the study

Statistics

Using math to sort, sum up, and make sense of numerical data findings

Descriptive Statistics

Summarizes data and acts as the overview of numerical data. Key measures are Central Tendency, Variability, and correlation.

Central Tendency

Measuring the Mean (average of scores), Median (scores in the middle when laid out), and Mode (score that occurs the most)

Variability

How much scores differ from the mean and each other

Standard Deviation

An index of the amount of variability in data. Rises and falls with variability and helps support hypotheses

Correlation

Forms when two variables are related to each other

Correlation Coefficient

shows direction or strength in how the variables are related (+ and - symbol and the number that goes along with it)

Positive Correlation (+)

Variables co-vary in the same direction (ex. if ‘x’ scores are high, ‘y’ scores are also high)

Negative Correlation (-)

Variables co-vary in the opposite direction (ex. if ‘x’ scores are high, ‘y’ scores are low)

Strength of Correlation

The size of the correlation is the strength of the correlation; Coefficient range is from 0 to +1.00 or 0 to -1.00; the closer the value is to +-1.00, the stronger the relationship in the correlation is.

Correlation and Prediction

As correlation strength increases, the ability to predict a variable with info on the other variable increases as well (ex. high GPA helps predict how well a student will do in college)

Correlation and Causation

Variables can be highly correlated without being related (ex. Childs foot growth is related to the growth of their vocabulary.) Though variables do not have an effect on one another, rather that effect is caused by a third variable (child's age)

Inferential Statistics

numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance; Interprets data and makes conclusions by using probability

Statistical Significance

Relevant when probability of observed discoveries are due to low chance

Replication

Repeating a study to see if results are also the same again to double-check work

Sample

A group of collected subjects chosen for observations in empirical studies

Population

Large collection of organisms (specific to study) that researchers want to generalize

Sampling bias

When a sample is not representative of the population, making generalizations inaccurate of the population they intend to test

Placebo

a fake drug used in the testing of medication that does not have any medicinal effect. Used to control the extraneous variable of the subjects expectations

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Placebo effect

when participants' expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment

Social-desirability bias

the common act to respond to questions with answers that would be acceptable by social standards, but are often dishonest answers from the respondent.

Response Set

the common act to respond to questions in an unrelated manner to the given content and context

Experimenter Bias

Expectations of a researcher influences the result leading the researcher to see what they want to see

Reason for experimental bias

Due to the researcher having an emotional attachment to their hypothesis that they have built themselves and wanting to see it succeed.

Robert Rosenthal

Conducted research on experimenter bias, identifying that researches without realizing, hint to the participant at the results they wish, such as smiling, nodding, etc. when the participant answers in a way that aligns with the results the researchers expect, influencing participants to continuously answer in a way that suits the researcher.

Double-blind procedure

A strategy in research where subjects and researchers are unaware of who is part of the control or experimental group, reducing experimental bias

Common dilemmas in psych

If animal testing is ethical; if deception is ethical; use of internet for studies

Pros of using deception

Eliminates the placebo effect and error of self-report; issues cannot be researched without first misleading the participants; lies are often small; research suggests that deception studies are not harmful to participants

Cons of using deception

Lying is immoral; might affect participants’ trust in others; creates unnecessary distress

Use of animal studies in psych

used for learning about the behavior of specific species; done to see if certain laws of behavior apply to both humans and animals; used for treatment that is unacceptable for humans, easily to isolate and control to clearly see how an independent variable affects the targeted behavior

Controversy with animal studies

Animal studies might yield as a waste of time because the results don't apply to humans; animals might be subjected to unnecessary cruelty

Ethical principles of research

Developed by the APA to ensure both human and animal subjects are treated well and set standards for researchers

Ethical principles of research (humans)

1\.) Participation is voluntary, can withdraw whenever \n 2.) No harmful/dangerous treatment \n 3.) If deception is used, subjects will know the intentions of the study asap \n 4.) privacy of participants won’t be compromised

Ethical principles of research (animals)

1\.) Harm to animals are not allowed unless the act is seen useful

2\.) Animals will be entitled to a decent environment

Journal

Published technical material written by experts in a particular area of study.

anecdotal evidence

Personal stories about specific incidents and experiences; can easily sway listener because they are they are vivid and memorable.