Looks like no one added any tags here yet for you.
3 shared goals for psychologists
Measurement and description, understanding and prediction, application and control
Measurement and description
Requires one to create ways to measure what can be described from behavior
Understanding and Predictions
Using hypotheses to uncover understandings of behavior’s or phenomenon’s occurance
Hypothesis
Initial prediction with 2 or more variables (any measurable bit of information) that can be observed or tested
Application and control
Applying discoveries and research to everyday uses and problems
theory
connection or system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations
Steps in a Scientific Investigation
1.) formulate a testable hypothesis
2.) select research method and design the study
3.) collect data
4.) data analysis and conclusions
5.) report findings
Operational definition
describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable and ensure the variable won't be influenced by outside forces
Data Collection techniques
Direct observation, Questionnaire, Interview, Psychological test, Psychological recording, Examination of archival records
Two Major advantages of scientific approach
Clarity in communication and relative intolerance of error
Experiments
Methods of research where variables can be controlled and observed through changes in another variable; Identifies cause-and-effect relationships
Independent Variable
Variable that is manipulated to influence outcome
Dependent Variable
Measurable outcome; Can’t change unless from the independent variable
Stanley Schachter
Questioned if people prefer to be around others or alone when one is feeling anxious, in which he discovered that they prefer to be around others. The independent variable was the anxiety level and the dependent was the desire to wait with others.
Experimental group
Group in an experiment that receives treatment and is tested
Control group
group in an experiement that does not receive treatment
Need for Experimental group and Control group
To note any observable differences caused by the independent variable. Both groups would have the same content aside from the outcome of the treatment in experimental group
Varying experiment designs
Experimental group is its own control group; multiple variables
Extraneous Variables
All other variables that are different from the independent variable that can impact the dependent variable
Cofounding of Variables
Variables that have connections between them that makes it difficult to differentiate the unique effect of each
Use of randomly assigned groups
For fairness and reduced bias in a study
Advantage of experimental research
Conclusions between variables can be made with cause-and-effect relationships; ensures that the participants in the experimental and control conditions would be alike on any extraneous variables involving their personal characteristics; it's possible to manipulate more than one independent variable in a single experiment to examine their joint effects on the dependent variable
Disadvantages of experimental research
Limitations in experiments; artificial; certain questions can’t be answered; ethics and practicality affect variables
Descriptive/correlational methods
Methods used for finding and explaining patterns of behavior and finding relations among variables
Naturalistic Observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without intervening directly with the subjects. Meaning they can view behavior in its natural environment.
Case Studies
In-depth investigations of specific topics that involve interviewing key people and analyzing related records, along with psychological testing. Can be subjective when selecting info
Psychological autopsies
Applying case studies to suicides
Surveys
Use of questionnaires or interviews to uncover info on certain parts of background and behavior
Advantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research
Explores and answers questions experimental research can’t; more ethical; broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists can study
Disadvantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research
Can’t control or manipulate cause and effect relationships; Can’t show variables are conclusively linked; uncontrollable factors can affect the real understanding of the study
Statistics
Using math to sort, sum up, and make sense of numerical data findings
Descriptive Statistics
Summarizes data and acts as the overview of numerical data. Key measures are Central Tendency, Variability, and correlation.
Central Tendency
Measuring the Mean (average of scores), Median (scores in the middle when laid out), and Mode (score that occurs the most)
Variability
How much scores differ from the mean and each other
Standard Deviation
An index of the amount of variability in data. Rises and falls with variability and helps support hypotheses
Correlation
Forms when two variables are related to each other
Correlation Coefficient
shows direction or strength in how the variables are related (+ and - symbol and the number that goes along with it)
Positive Correlation (+)
Variables co-vary in the same direction (ex. if ‘x’ scores are high, ‘y’ scores are also high)
Negative Correlation (-)
Variables co-vary in the opposite direction (ex. if ‘x’ scores are high, ‘y’ scores are low)
Strength of Correlation
The size of the correlation is the strength of the correlation; Coefficient range is from 0 to +1.00 or 0 to -1.00; the closer the value is to +-1.00, the stronger the relationship in the correlation is.
Correlation and Prediction
As correlation strength increases, the ability to predict a variable with info on the other variable increases as well (ex. high GPA helps predict how well a student will do in college)
Correlation and Causation
Variables can be highly correlated without being related (ex. Childs foot growth is related to the growth of their vocabulary.) Though variables do not have an effect on one another, rather that effect is caused by a third variable (child's age)
Inferential Statistics
numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance; Interprets data and makes conclusions by using probability
Statistical Significance
Relevant when probability of observed discoveries are due to low chance
Replication
Repeating a study to see if results are also the same again to double-check work
Sample
A group of collected subjects chosen for observations in empirical studies
Population
Large collection of organisms (specific to study) that researchers want to generalize
Sampling bias
When a sample is not representative of the population, making generalizations inaccurate of the population they intend to test
Placebo
a fake drug used in the testing of medication that does not have any medicinal effect. Used to control the extraneous variable of the subjects expectations
Placebo effect
when participants' expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment
Social-desirability bias
the common act to respond to questions with answers that would be acceptable by social standards, but are often dishonest answers from the respondent.
Response Set
the common act to respond to questions in an unrelated manner to the given content and context
Experimenter Bias
Expectations of a researcher influences the result leading the researcher to see what they want to see
Reason for experimental bias
Due to the researcher having an emotional attachment to their hypothesis that they have built themselves and wanting to see it succeed.
Robert Rosenthal
Conducted research on experimenter bias, identifying that researches without realizing, hint to the participant at the results they wish, such as smiling, nodding, etc. when the participant answers in a way that aligns with the results the researchers expect, influencing participants to continuously answer in a way that suits the researcher.
Double-blind procedure
A strategy in research where subjects and researchers are unaware of who is part of the control or experimental group, reducing experimental bias
Common dilemmas in psych
If animal testing is ethical; if deception is ethical; use of internet for studies
Pros of using deception
Eliminates the placebo effect and error of self-report; issues cannot be researched without first misleading the participants; lies are often small; research suggests that deception studies are not harmful to participants
Cons of using deception
Lying is immoral; might affect participants’ trust in others; creates unnecessary distress
Use of animal studies in psych
used for learning about the behavior of specific species; done to see if certain laws of behavior apply to both humans and animals; used for treatment that is unacceptable for humans, easily to isolate and control to clearly see how an independent variable affects the targeted behavior
Controversy with animal studies
Animal studies might yield as a waste of time because the results don't apply to humans; animals might be subjected to unnecessary cruelty
Ethical principles of research
Developed by the APA to ensure both human and animal subjects are treated well and set standards for researchers
Ethical principles of research (humans)
1.) Participation is voluntary, can withdraw whenever \n 2.) No harmful/dangerous treatment \n 3.) If deception is used, subjects will know the intentions of the study asap \n 4.) privacy of participants won’t be compromised
Ethical principles of research (animals)
1.) Harm to animals are not allowed unless the act is seen useful
2.) Animals will be entitled to a decent environment
Journal
Published technical material written by experts in a particular area of study.
anecdotal evidence
Personal stories about specific incidents and experiences; can easily sway listener because they are they are vivid and memorable.