BBR

Alzheimer's disease

characterized by disorientation and changes in behavior, caused by reduction in cell communication and beta amyloid build up around synapses and protein tau,

acetylcholine (ACh)

first transmitter identified; released by neurons connected to voluntary muscles and in heart beat neurons

action potential

internal electric charge in the cells reverses; goes from very negative to very positive; then passes on axon membrane to next synapse

ADHD

being excessively inattentive, hyperactive, or impulsive; caused by delayed cortical development, reduced catacholamine transmission, unbalanced dopamine and norepinephrine transmission

autonomic nervous system

comprised of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

ALS

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; motor neurons disintegrate in brain and spinal cord eventually leading to paralysis; caused by excess amount of glutamate

autism

abnormal development, difficulties with social interaction, dysregulation of immune system, impaired communication

axon terminal

sends messages across synapse

amygdala

plays a role in emotional aspects of memory; learned emotional responses

acetylcholine

released between neurons connected voluntary muscles

amygdala

learned emotional responses

autonomic nervous system

controls organs, involuntary behavior and CNS

basal ganglia

cerebral nuclei; coordinate muscle movements and reward behaviors

basal ganglia

part of the forebrain along with all the lobes; cerebral nuclei deep in cerebral cortex that coordinate muscle movement

cerebrum

largest part of brain, controls voluntary behavior

cerbellum

two hemispheres, center for coordination and cognitive movement; Pavlovian learning

critical period

a developing individual must obtain certain sensory, movement, or emotional experiences to mature properly; occurs in early childhood in humans

corpus callosum

connects the right and left hemispheres

creating neuronal connections

neurons' axons and dendrites extend, growth cones added to axon tips, form connections with other neurons from signaling molecules such as netrin, semaphorin, and ephrin

cerebral cortex

wrinkled gray matter; outmost layer of cerebrum; increased surface area for more neurons

cerebellum

two hemispheres, control movement and cognition of precising timing movements

cerebral cortex

covers the outermost layer of cerebrum, convoluted gray matter

cerebrum

largest part of brain; voluntary behavior, to lobes connected by corpus collosum

catecholamines

includes dopamine and norepinephrine, loss of these can result in memory loss and irregular heart beat and BP

Central Nervous System

contains the brain and spinal cord

cataplexy

condition where atonia occurs while awake, causing muscle weakness or paralysis

declarative memory.

consciously remember everyday facts

dyslexia

reading disability, deficit in language phonology, differences in development of parieto-temporal, occipito-temporal, and Broca's regions

During this stage of sleep, active dreaming occurs.

REM sleep

diencephalon

primitive brain

Down's Syndrome

trisomy 21, develop atypically and at a slower rate, heart defects, impaired speech, too large of a tongue

epilepsy

seizures and convulsing

episodic memory

memories of specific personal experiences involves the parahippocampal and hippocampal regions

frontal lobe

center for higher cognitive skills, personality, and emotion

forebrain

lobes of cerebrum; basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus

fluent aphasias

produced by left temporal lobe, comprehension of speech is impaired

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging

frontal lobe

high cognitive thinking; personality and emotional make up

hynogogic hallucination

condition of entering the dreaming state while still awake, can occur in narcolepsy

Huntington's Disease

affects basal ganglia (center for coordination) and brain cortex (center for memory, perception, thought), characterized by irritability, clumsiness, slurred speech, impaired memory; caused by production of abnormal huntingtin protein (involved in transcription)

hypothalamus

control center for appetite, defensive and reproductive behaviors, sleep-wakefullness

Huntington's disease

movement, psychiatric, cognitive disorders; genetic disorder; GABA-producing neurons degenerate causing uncontrollable movements

hypothalamus

control center for appetites, defensive and reproductive behavior, sleep/wakefullness

hindbrain

includes pons, medulla oblongata, cerebellum, center for involuntary activity such as respiration, heart rhythm, blood glucose rhythm

gray matter

actually living cells

glucocorticoids

stimulates body's energy, increases cardiovascular tone, released by hypothalamus and adrenal glands

glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate

neurotransmitters that prevent the firing of neurons

induction

some cells of the ectoderm turn into nerve cells by signaling molecules

left parietal damage

spoken and written language impaired

long-term potentiation

increase in strength of a synaptic response

lipid messengers

includes prostaglandins, promote pain, control release of other neurotransmitters

left parietal loobe

center for language and writing

locus coeruleus

center for norepinephrin neurons activated by orexin in times of sleep arousal

midbrain

home to colliculi, helps relay information to thalamus, center for mood, important for reward mechanisms

myelin sheath

fatty glial cells that wrap around axons to accelerate transmission of electrical signals; brain contains 10 times more glia than neurons

midbrain

made of two colliculi; visual and auditory reflexes and relaying info to thalamus; important for mood and reward

myelination

myelin cells clump around neurons, form nodes of Ranvier

migration

neurons migrate to different places to form the hindbrain, hemispheres, can be altered due to alcohol, cocaine, or radiation

myasthenia gravis

fatigue and weakness of muscles caused by the blockage of

ACh receptors by antibodies

neurogenesis

adult brain continually generating new nerve cells

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that travel across synapse and bind to receptors; binding triggers change in membrane potential then generation of action potential in target cell, muscle contraction, enzyme activity, or inhibition of neurotransmission

narcolepsy

the sudden falling asleep during the day, due to loss of nerve cells in lateral hypothalamus that contain orexin

non fluent aphasias

produced by left frontal lobe, speech production abilities are impaired

neurotrophins

result in growth of the synapse

nitric oxide and carbon monoxide

regulates arousal and normal digestion

occiptal lobe

visual info; shapes and colors

occipital lobe

visual recognition of shapes and colors

parietal lobe

center for sensory processes, attention, and language

paring back

half the neurons generated in early life live to maturity, removal of ineffective neurons by apoptosis

parasympathetic nervous system

part of autonomic nervous system, regulates body functions and organs, returns body to normalcy

prefrontal cortex

supports rehearsal and retrieval of long term memory semantic memory

PNS

contains nerves and gray matter (ganglia)

plasticity

ability of brain to modify itself and adapt to environment; experience-dependent and experience-expectant

Parkinson's disease

characterized by slowness of movement, rigidity, coordination impairment, caused by loss of dopamine-producing cells in substantia nigra pars compacta in midbrain

parietal lobe

sensory processes, attention and language

PET

positron emission tomography

peptides

present in neurons during times of stress and enhance adaptation

procedural memory

knowledge of how to do something involves basal ganglia and cerebellum

parasympathetic nervous system

instigates the state of relaxation

pons and medulla

respiration, heart rhythms, blood-glucose

right parietal lobe

navigating spaces

regulators of sleep

upper brainstem, hypothalamus, basal forebrain; neurotransmitters ACh, norepinephrine, serotonin, orexin, glutamate, less active during non-REM sleep

right parietal damage

difficulty navigating spaces

REM behavior disorder

sleep walking, muscles fail to become fully paralyzed

sympathetic nervous system

responds to stress and arousal

spinal cord

attaches to brain through vertebral column, central nervous system

serotonin

present in neurons that regulate sleep and mood

secondary messengers

conveys message of neurotransmitter from cell membrane to internal cell, regulate metabolism and development

stem cells

divide and form new neurons

speech

produced by both temporal lobes

superchiasmatic nucleus

group of nerves in the hypothalamus acting as the master clock and circadian regulator

somatic nervous system

neurons connecting CNS to parts of body that interact with world ie: limbs

sleep apnea

the muscles that control the throat and trachea relax to the point of collapse, blocking the air way and jerking the person awake

spinal cord

connects to brain stem through vertebral column; uses info to relay reflexes to pain and sensory info; controls muscles and viscera through nerve impulses; voluntary and involuntary

sympathetic nervous system

part of autonomic nervous system, stimulates arteries in response to stress

semantic memory

memory of pedantic information

steroid hormones

androgens, estrogens, progestins, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, vitamin D; regulate actions of genes and DNA

Steps of Nerve Cell Development

1. induction 2. migration 3. connections 4. mylineation 5. paring back

trophic factors

present in the brain, needed for development and survival of neurons