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science
connotes content and process;
self-correcting as scientific explanations and theories are challenged, and revised or replaced.
methodology
consists of the scientific techniques we use to collect and evaluate data
data
are the facts we gather using scientific methods
commonsense psychology
Heider called nonscientific data gathering —
uses nonscientific sources of data and nonscientific inference
an everyday example is believing that “opposites attract”
nonscientific inference
is the nonscientific use of information to explain or predict behavior.
The gambler’s fallacy, overuse of trait explanations, stereotyping, and overconfidence bias illustrate this problem.
gambler’s fallacy
people misuse data to estimate the probability of an event, like when a slot machine will pay off
stereotyping
we falsely assume that specific behaviors cluster together
overconfidence
we feel more confident about our conclusions than is warranted by available data.
this form of nonscientific inference can result in erroneous conclusions when we don’t recognize the limitations of supporting data
Alfred North Whitehead’s scientific mentality
assumes that behavior follows a natural order and can be predicted. this assumption is essential to science.
There is no point to using the scientific method to gather and analyze data if there is no implicit order
empirical
data are — when observed or experienced.
Galileo’s — approach was superior to Aristotle’s commonsense method.
Galileo correctly concluded that light objects fall as rapidly as heavy ones in a vacuum.
law
consists of statements generally expressed as equations with few variables that have overwhelming empirical support.
theory
is an interim explanation;
a set of related statements used explain and predict phenomena.
— integrate diverse data, explain behavior, and predict new instances of behavior
good thinking
critical to the scientific method.
we engage in — when data collection and interpretation are systematic, objective, and rational.
parsimony
we prefer the simplest useful explanation
Sir Karl Popper
—- proposed that science advances by revising theories based on the “weight of evidence.”
principle of modus tollens
allows us to disprove statements using a single, contrary observation.
we can never prove a statement because a contradictory observation might be found later
replication
exact or systematic repetition of a study.
increases our confidence in experimental results by adding to the weight of supporting evidence
description
prediction
explanation
control
4 main objectives of science
description
systematic and unbiased account of observed characteristics of behaviors.
prediction
capability of knowing in advance when certain behaviors should occur
explanation
knowledge of the conditions that reliably produce a behavior
control
use of scientific knowledge to influence behavior.
applied research
addresses real-world problems like how to improve student graduation rates.
basic research
tests theories and explains psychological phenomena like helping behavior
observation
measurement
experimentation
main tools of psychological science
observation
systematic noting and recording of events.
— must be objective so that there can be strong agreement among raters.
Systematic
means that the procedures are consistently applied
measurement
assigns numbers to objects, events, or their characteristics.
this is an inherent feature of quantitative research
experimentation
process we use to test the predictions we call hypotheses and establish cause0and-effect relationships.
— is not always possible because our predictions must be testable.
pseudoscience
any field of study that gives the appearance of being scientific, but has no true scientific basis and has not been confirmed using the scientific method.
modern —- include; past life regression, reparenting, and rebirthing
research ethics
framework of values within which we conduct research.
help researchers identify actions we consider good and bad, and explain the principles by which we make responsible decisions in actual situations
institutional review boards (IRBs)
composed of laypeople and researchers, evaluate research proposals to make sure that they follow ethical standards.
protect the safety of research participants.
also help researchers estimate the degree of risk involved in their studies.
their first task is to decide whether a proposed study increases participants’ risk of injury since psychological research can cause physical and/or psychological discomfort.
studies that place subjects at risk
increase the chance of harm compared with not participating the study.
minimal risk studies
do not increase the likelihood of injury
approve an “at risk” study
IRBs should —when a risk/benefit analysis determines that risks to participants are outweighed by gains in knowledge
respect for persons
beneficence
justice
Belmont report 3 principles
respect for persons
individuals have the right of self-determination (basis of informed consent).
beneficence
minimize harm and maximize potential benefits (basis of risk/benefit analysis
justice
fairness in both the burdens and benefits of research
informed consent
subject guardian agrees in writing to the subject’s participation after relevant details of the experiment have been explained.
this description may include risks and benefits, but does not extend to deception or the hypothesis.
the most important principle built into ethics codes is the right of a participant to refuse to be in the study or discontinue participation.
APA ethical guidelines
apply to psychologists and students when they assume the role of psychologists during research or practice.
deception
may be used when it is the best way to obtain information.
may not be used to minimize the participants’ perception of risk or exaggerate their perception of potential benefits
debriefing
(full disclosure) after either their personal participation or the completion of the entire study.
involves explaining the true nature and purpose of the experiment.
we must offer our participants a full explanation of our study any time that we use deception.
an experimenter discloses the true nature and purpose of the study to the subject and solicits subjects’ questions at the end of the experiment
confederate
experimenter’s accomplice; use of this is deceptive because subjects are led to believe that the confederate is another subject, experimenter, or bystander, when he or she is actually part of the experimental manipulation.
full disclosure
explaining the true nature and purpose of the study to the subject at the end of their participation or at the completion of the entire experiment.
anonymity
means that subjects are not identified by name.
achieved by collecting data without names and assigning code numbers.
confidentiality
data are securely stored and only used for the purpose explained to the subject.
achieved by storing data in a locked safe and only using the data for the purposes explained to the participants.
animal welfare
humane care and treatment of animals.
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
institutions that conduct animal research must establish an — to evaluate animal research before it is conducted.
— must determine that the researchers have explored all alternatives and have documented that there are no other feasible alternatives
animal rights
position that sensate species (those that can feel pain and suffer) have equal value and rights to humans.
scientific fraud
falsifying or fabricating data. researcher’s graduation, tenure, promotion, funding, or reputation may motivate researchers to commit fraud.
peer review
— process filters submitted manuscripts so that only 15-20% of articles are printed.
replication
researchers attempt to reproduce the findings of others, is the second line of defense.
competition
colleagues for scarce resources, while a cause of fraud, is the third line of defense.
plagiarism
misrepresenting someone’s “ideas, words, or written work” as your own. form of fraud, in which an individual claims false credit for another’s ideas, words, or written work
authorship credit
should only be given to those who made a major contribution to the research or writing
non-experimental approaches
— do not create levels of an independent variable nor randomly assign subjects to these levels.
they are used where experiments are not ethical or possible, or where we want to test hypotheses in realistic conditions
internal validity
degree to which a researcher can establish a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
high internal validity
an experiment has — when we can demonstrate that only the antecedent conditions are responsible for group differences in behavior
internally valid experiment
an — allows us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions.
laboratory experiments
— often higher in internal validity because of their control of extraneous variables
matching and random assignment conditions
Researchers create levels of the IV and use procedures like —-
external validity
is the degree to which research findings can be generalized to other settings and individuals.
nonexperimental studies
are more frequently conducted in real-world settings with a more diverse sample of participants than experiments.
degree of manipulation of antecedent conditions
—- concerns assignment of subjects to antecedent conditions created for the experiment.
degree of manipulation in the treatments (IV) given.
In the case of Nonexperimental designs, this is low.
degree of imposition of units
is how much you limit a subject’s responses on the DV.
gathering data on teenage behavior versus gathering data on the music preferences of teenagers (e.g. how often do you listen to hip-hop)
phenomenology
involves a subject's description of personal subjective experience.
low in manipulation of antecedent conditions and low in imposition of units (low-low)
private personal experience
source of data
case studies
in — a researcher compiles a descriptive study of a subject's experiences, observable behaviors, and archival records kept by an outside observer.
heavily used in Forensic, Organizational, and Clinical psychology.
ranges from low-low to low-high
deviant case analysis
researchers examine differences between deviant and normal individuals to identify etiological factors.
this approach may also be applied to nonclinical issues such as social trends and adult morale.
retrospective data
recollections of past events that are collected in the present.
while your childhood memories constitute —, your undergraduate portfolio does not since it was collected in the past
field studies
nonexperimental studies conducted in the field (real-life settings).
the experimenter does not manipulate antecedent conditions.
range from low-low to low-high.
naturalistic observation
examines subjects’ spontaneous behavior in their actual environments and may obtain more representative behavior than experiments.
this method can achieve high levels of external validity.
reactivity
in — subjects alter their behavior when they know that they are being observed.
For example, your baby sister stops saying
“Gramma” when you place the phone near her
mouth.
participant-observer study
involves field observation in which the researcher is part of the studied group.
this approach contrasts with naturalistic observation, where the researcher does not interact with research subjects to avoid reactivity.
field experiments
conducted in real-life settings.
field studies (2)
are nonexperimental designs used in real-life settings and include naturalistic
observation, unobtrusive measures, participant- observer studies, and surveys.
archival study
is a descriptive method where researchers reexamine data that were collected for other purposes.
For example, universities collect a wealth of data through surveys like the Graduating Senior Questionnaire (GSQ) and interviews
qualitative research
obtains data consisting of words instead of numbers.
this information is obtained through self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts.
paradigm shift
a change in attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures accepted during a specific time period.
contextual phenomena
behavior that can only be understood within its context. f
or example, we might examine the meaning of religious faith for patients facing impending surgery