expe

science

science

• connotes content and process;

• self-correcting as scientific explanations and theories are challenged, and revised or replaced.

methodology

consists of the scientific techniques we use to collect and evaluate data

data

are the facts we gather using scientific methods

commonsense psychology

• Heider called nonscientific data gathering —

• uses nonscientific sources of data and nonscientific inference

• an everyday example is believing that “opposites attract”

nonscientific inference

• is the nonscientific use of information to explain or predict behavior.

• The gambler’s fallacy, overuse of trait explanations, stereotyping, and overconfidence bias illustrate this problem.

gambler’s fallacy

people misuse data to estimate the probability of an event, like when a slot machine will pay off

stereotyping

we falsely assume that specific behaviors cluster together

overconfidence

• we feel more confident about our conclusions than is warranted by available data.

• this form of nonscientific inference can result in erroneous conclusions when we don’t recognize the limitations of supporting data

Alfred North Whitehead’s scientific mentality

• assumes that behavior follows a natural order and can be predicted. this assumption is essential to science.

• There is no point to using the scientific method to gather and analyze data if there is no implicit order

empirical

• data are — when observed or experienced.

• Galileo’s — approach was superior to Aristotle’s commonsense method.

• Galileo correctly concluded that light objects fall as rapidly as heavy ones in a vacuum.

law

consists of statements generally expressed as equations with few variables that have overwhelming empirical support.

theory

• is an interim explanation;

• a set of related statements used explain and predict phenomena.

• — integrate diverse data, explain behavior, and predict new instances of behavior

good thinking

• critical to the scientific method.

• we engage in — when data collection and interpretation are systematic, objective, and rational.

parsimony

we prefer the simplest useful explanation

Sir Karl Popper

—- proposed that science advances by revising theories based on the “weight of evidence.”

principle of modus tollens

• allows us to disprove statements using a single, contrary observation.

• we can never prove a statement because a contradictory observation might be found later

replication

• exact or systematic repetition of a study.

• increases our confidence in experimental results by adding to the weight of supporting evidence

1. description

2. prediction

3. explanation

4. control

4 main objectives of science

description

systematic and unbiased account of observed characteristics of behaviors.

prediction

capability of knowing in advance when certain behaviors should occur

explanation

knowledge of the conditions that reliably produce a behavior

control

use of scientific knowledge to influence behavior.

applied research

addresses real-world problems like how to improve student graduation rates.

basic research

tests theories and explains psychological phenomena like helping behavior

1. observation

2. measurement

3. experimentation

main tools of psychological science

observation

• systematic noting and recording of events.

• — must be objective so that there can be strong agreement among raters.

Systematic

means that the procedures are consistently applied

measurement

• assigns numbers to objects, events, or their characteristics.

• this is an inherent feature of quantitative research

experimentation

• process we use to test the predictions we call hypotheses and establish cause0and-effect relationships.

• — is not always possible because our predictions must be testable.

pseudoscience

• any field of study that gives the appearance of being scientific, but has no true scientific basis and has not been confirmed using the scientific method.

• modern —- include; past life regression, reparenting, and rebirthing

research ethics

• framework of values within which we conduct research.

• help researchers identify actions we consider good and bad, and explain the principles by which we make responsible decisions in actual situations

institutional review boards (IRBs)

• composed of laypeople and researchers, evaluate research proposals to make sure that they follow ethical standards.

• protect the safety of research participants.

• also help researchers estimate the degree of risk involved in their studies.

• their first task is to decide whether a proposed study increases participants’ risk of injury since psychological research can cause physical and/or psychological discomfort.

studies that place subjects at risk

increase the chance of harm compared with not participating the study.

minimal risk studies

do not increase the likelihood of injury

approve an “at risk” study

IRBs should —when a risk/benefit analysis determines that risks to participants are outweighed by gains in knowledge

1. respect for persons

2. beneficence

3. justice

Belmont report 3 principles

respect for persons

individuals have the right of self-determination (basis of informed consent).

beneficence

minimize harm and maximize potential benefits (basis of risk/benefit analysis

justice

fairness in both the burdens and benefits of research

informed consent

• subject guardian agrees in writing to the subject’s participation after relevant details of the experiment have been explained.

• this description may include risks and benefits, but does not extend to deception or the hypothesis.

• the most important principle built into ethics codes is the right of a participant to refuse to be in the study or discontinue participation.

APA ethical guidelines

apply to psychologists and students when they assume the role of psychologists during research or practice.

deception

• may be used when it is the best way to obtain information.

• may not be used to minimize the participants’ perception of risk or exaggerate their perception of potential benefits

debriefing

• (full disclosure) after either their personal participation or the completion of the entire study.

• involves explaining the true nature and purpose of the experiment.

• we must offer our participants a full explanation of our study any time that we use deception.

• an experimenter discloses the true nature and purpose of the study to the subject and solicits subjects’ questions at the end of the experiment

confederate

experimenter’s accomplice; use of this is deceptive because subjects are led to believe that the confederate is another subject, experimenter, or bystander, when he or she is actually part of the experimental manipulation.

full disclosure

explaining the true nature and purpose of the study to the subject at the end of their participation or at the completion of the entire experiment.

anonymity

• means that subjects are not identified by name.

• achieved by collecting data without names and assigning code numbers.

confidentiality

• data are securely stored and only used for the purpose explained to the subject.

• achieved by storing data in a locked safe and only using the data for the purposes explained to the participants.

animal welfare

humane care and treatment of animals.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

• institutions that conduct animal research must establish an — to evaluate animal research before it is conducted.

• — must determine that the researchers have explored all alternatives and have documented that there are no other feasible alternatives

animal rights

position that sensate species (those that can feel pain and suffer) have equal value and rights to humans.

scientific fraud

falsifying or fabricating data. researcher’s graduation, tenure, promotion, funding, or reputation may motivate researchers to commit fraud.

peer review

— process filters submitted manuscripts so that only 15-20% of articles are printed.

replication

researchers attempt to reproduce the findings of others, is the second line of defense.

competition

colleagues for scarce resources, while a cause of fraud, is the third line of defense.

plagiarism

misrepresenting someone’s “ideas, words, or written work” as your own. form of fraud, in which an individual claims false credit for another’s ideas, words, or written work

authorship credit

should only be given to those who made a major contribution to the research or writing

non-experimental approaches

• — do not create levels of an independent variable nor randomly assign subjects to these levels.

• they are used where experiments are not ethical or possible, or where we want to test hypotheses in realistic conditions

internal validity

degree to which a researcher can establish a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

high internal validity

an experiment has — when we can demonstrate that only the antecedent conditions are responsible for group differences in behavior

internally valid experiment

an — allows us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions.

laboratory experiments

— often higher in internal validity because of their control of extraneous variables

matching and random assignment conditions

Researchers create levels of the IV and use procedures like —-

external validity

is the degree to which research findings can be generalized to other settings and individuals.

nonexperimental studies

are more frequently conducted in real-world settings with a more diverse sample of participants than experiments.

degree of manipulation of antecedent conditions

• —- concerns assignment of subjects to antecedent conditions created for the experiment.

• degree of manipulation in the treatments (IV) given.

• In the case of Nonexperimental designs, this is low.

degree of imposition of units

• is how much you limit a subject’s responses on the DV.

• gathering data on teenage behavior versus gathering data on the music preferences of teenagers (e.g. how often do you listen to hip-hop)

phenomenology

• involves a subject's description of personal subjective experience.

• low in manipulation of antecedent conditions and low in imposition of units (low-low)

private personal experience

source of data

case studies

• in — a researcher compiles a descriptive study of a subject's experiences, observable behaviors, and archival records kept by an outside observer.

• heavily used in Forensic, Organizational, and Clinical psychology.

• ranges from low-low to low-high

deviant case analysis

• researchers examine differences between deviant and normal individuals to identify etiological factors.

• this approach may also be applied to nonclinical issues such as social trends and adult morale.

retrospective data

• recollections of past events that are collected in the present.

• while your childhood memories constitute —, your undergraduate portfolio does not since it was collected in the past

field studies

• nonexperimental studies conducted in the field (real-life settings).

• the experimenter does not manipulate antecedent conditions.

• range from low-low to low-high.

naturalistic observation

• examines subjects’ spontaneous behavior in their actual environments and may obtain more representative behavior than experiments.

• this method can achieve high levels of external validity.

reactivity

• in — subjects alter their behavior when they know that they are being observed.

• For example, your baby sister stops saying
  “Gramma” when you place the phone near her
  mouth.

participant-observer study

• involves field observation in which the researcher is part of the studied group.

• this approach contrasts with naturalistic observation, where the researcher does not interact with research subjects to avoid reactivity.

field experiments

conducted in real-life settings.

field studies (2)

are nonexperimental designs used in real-life settings and include naturalistic
observation, unobtrusive measures, participant- observer studies, and surveys.

archival study

• is a descriptive method where researchers reexamine data that were collected for other purposes.

• For example, universities collect a wealth of data through surveys like the Graduating Senior Questionnaire (GSQ) and interviews

qualitative research

• obtains data consisting of words instead of numbers.

• this information is obtained through self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts.

paradigm shift

a change in attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures accepted during a specific time period.

contextual phenomena

• behavior that can only be understood within its context. f

• or example, we might examine the meaning of religious faith for patients facing impending surgery