A level psychology

classical conditioning

learning through association

operant conditioning

learning through consequences

behaviourist approach

explains behaviour in terms of observation and learning

reinforcement

consequence of behaviour that increases likelihood of that behaviour being repeated (can be positive or negative)

social learning theory

explains behaviour with direct and indirect reinforcement

imitation

copying the behaviour of others

vicarious reinforcement

through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

mediational processes

cognitive factors (thinking) that influence learning - come between stimulus and response

cognitive approach

how our mental processes (thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour

biological approach

perspective that emphasises importance of physical processes such as genetic inheritance and neural function

genes

sections of DNA that code for specific characteristics

phenotype

characteristics of individual determined by genes and environment

neuron

nerve cells that process and transmit messages through chemical and electrical signals

sensory neurons

carry messages from PNS to CNS - long dendrites and short axons

relay neurons

connect sensory neurons to motor or other relay neurons - short dendrites and short axons

motor neurons

connect CNS to effectors (muscles, glands) - short dendrites and long axons

synaptic transmission

when neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synapse (gap that separates them)

neurotransmitter

chemicals released by synaptic vesicles that carry signals across the synapse

excitation

when a neurotransmitter increases positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron - increases chance that neuron will fire and pass on electrical impulse

inhibition

neurotransmitter (ie serotonin) increases negative charge of postsynaptic neuron - decreases chance of neuron firing and passing on electrical impulse

Statistical infrequency

when an individual has a less common characteristic

Deviation from social norms

Concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society

Failure to function adequately

when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of everyday life

Deviation from ideal mental health

when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health

Three examples of Jahodas criteria for good mental health

- no symptoms or distress
- self actualise (reach our potential)
- can successfully work, love and enjoy daily life

Phobia

an irrational fear of an object or situation

Behavioural

ways in which people act

Emotional

Ways in which people feel

Cognitive

process of thinking - knowing, percieving, believing

Behavioural characteristics of phobias

panic, avoidance, endurance

Emotional characteristics of phobias

anxiety

cognitive characteristics of phobias

selective attention, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions

Depression

mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels

Behavioural characteristics of depression

activity levels, disruption to sleep and eating behaviour, aggression and self harm

Emotional characteristics of depression

lowered mood, anger, lowered self-esteem

Cognitive characteristics of depression

poor concentration, dwelling on the negative, absolutist thinking

Obsessive compulsive disorder

condition characterised by obsessions and/o compulsive behaviour

Behavioural characteristics of OCD

compulsions (repetitive and reduce anxiety), avoidance

Emotional characteristics of OCD

anxiety and distress, accompanying to depression, guilt and disgust

Cognitive characteristics of OCD

obsessive thought, cognitive strategies to cope, insight into excessive anxiety

The two-process model to explaining phobias

phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning

Systematic desensitisation

behavioural therapy to reduce an unwanted response to a stimulus by using reserved classical conditioning

Flooding

a treatment for phobias in which clients are exposed repeatedly and intensively to a feared object and made to see that it is actually harmless

Becks three parts of cognitive vulnerability to depression

faulty information processing, negative self-schemas, the negative triad

Negative triad

negative views of the self, the world, and the future

ABC model

Ellis proposed that depression occurs when an activating event (A) triggers an irrational belief (B) which in turn produces a consequence (C)

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

method for treating mental disorders based on cognitive and behavioural techniques

Ellis' rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)

extends the ABC model to an ABCDE model - D standing for dispute and E standing for effective

Genetic explanations for OCD

candidate genes, OCD is polygenic, different types of OCD

diathesis-stress model

a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with an event

Neural explanations for OCD

role of serotonin (lower levels = lower mood), decision making systems (not making rational decisions)

Drug therapy for treating OCD

treatment that involves drugs that affect the balance of chemicals within the brain

SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)

antidepressant drug that prevents the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin which effectively increases the amount of serotonin that reaches the brain

Combining SSRIs with other treatments

SSRIs reduce the patients emotional symptoms which means that they can engage more effectively with CBT

Tricyclics

has the same affect as SSRIs but more severe side effects - tends to be used on patients who dont respond to SSRI treatment

SNRIs (serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors)

increases levels of serotonin and noradrenaline (hormone that slows heart rate and causes an inhibitatory reaction)

Aim

general statement of what the researcher intends to study/investigate

Hypothesis

clear, precise and testable statement that says the relationship between the variables to be investigated

Directional hypothesis

hypothesis that states the sort of difference that is anticipated between conditions

Non-directional hypothesis

hypothesis that states there is a difference between conditions but doesnt specify

Variables

anything that can change/vary in an experiment

Independant variable

The factor that is manipulated; variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Operationalisation

clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

Extraneous variables

any variables (other than the IV) that can have an affect on the DV

Confounding variables

anything that may have already affected the DV, questioning the state of the DV at the beginning of the experiment

Demand characteristics

any cue from the researcher/from the research situation that may be interpreted by the participant as revealing the purpose of the experiment

Investigator effects

any effect of the investigators behaviour on the outcome of the experiment

Randomisation

the use of chance to reduce the researchers influence on the design of the experiment

Experimental design

different ways in which testing of participants can be organised according to experimental conditions

Standardisation

using the exact same procedures for all participants in a research study

Independant group designs

two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions in the experiment

Repeated measures

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

Matched pairs design

Participants are matched on key characteristics. One participant does control condition and the other does the experimental condition.

Random allocation

participants are randomly allocated to the different conditions

Counterbalancing

attempt to control for effects of order, half the participants experience the conditions in one order, the other half experience the conditions in another order

Lab experiments

takes place in a controlled environment, researcher manipulates the IV and the DV is measured by the researcher whilst maintaining control of the extraneous variables

Field experiments

takes place in a natural setting, researcher manipulates the IV and measures the DV

Quasi experiments

IV is based on an existing difference (ie age), the DV is measured by the researcher, can be in lab or natural settings

Natural experiments

takes place in controlled environment, IV is not manipulated by the researcher and the DV is measured by the researchers

Population

group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest, from which a small sample is drawn

Sample

group of people who take part in a research investigation, drawn from a population

Sampling techniques

methods used to select people from the population

Bias (sampling)

certain groups can be under/over represented in the sample which limits the extent to which it can be generalised

Generalisation

extent to which findings and conclusions can be applied to the population

Ethical issues with psychological studies

issues that arise when there is conflict between the rights of the participants and the goals of the research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data

BPS code of ethics

document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about how to behave when dealing with participants

Four main prinicples of the BPS code of ethics

respect, competence, responsability, integrity

Pilot study

small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation to check that the procedures/equipment works

Single blind procedure

researcher is aware of the experiment but the participants are unaware

Double blind procedure

researcher and participants are unaware of the experiment

Naturalistic observation

watching and recording behaviour in a setting within which it would normally occur

Controlled observation

watching and recording behaviour in a controlled environment

Covert observation

Participants behaviour is observed and recorded without their knowledge

Overt observation

participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge

Participant observation

researcher becomes a member of the group being studied

Non-participant observation

researcher remains outside the group being studied

Behavioural categories

target behaviour is broken up into observable/measurable components

Event sampling

target behaviour or event is established then the researcher records this event everytime is occurs

Time sampling

A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame