Final- Psychology 1

Psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

Induction

starts with a specific observation and moves to a general conclusion

EXAMPLE- You see the sun rise every day, you conclude “the sun rise everyday”

Deduction

starts with a general rule and applies it to a specific case to reach a conclusion

EXAMPLE-  Rule: all birds have feather, Specific: A sparrow is a bird, Conclusion: A sparrow has feathers

Structuralism (Wundt, Titchener)

Focused on introspection and breaking down mental processes into basic components

Functionalism (James)

Emphasized the function of consciousness and how it helps people adapt to their environment.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

Emphasized the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and dream interpretation.

Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner)

Focus on observable behaviors and laws of learning.

Humanism (Maslow, Rogers)

Emphasizes free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Cognitive Psychology

Studies mental processes like thinking, language, and memory

Biopsychology/Evolutionary Psychology

Links behavior to biology and evolution, emphasizing adaptation and survival.

Scientific Method in Psychology

Steps include asking a question, forming a hypothesis, testing through experiment, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions

Scientific Research Process

Theory > Hypothesis > Experiment > Observation > Conclusion

Study Design Hierarchy

RCTs > Cohort Studies > Systematic Reviews

Participants & Sampling

Random sampling; groups include experimental and control

Independent Variable

Manipulated factor

Dependent Variable

Measured outcome

Confounding Variable

Uncontrolled influence

Causation vs. Correlation

Correlation does not imply causation

Ethics

Involves IRB approval, informed consent, confidentiality, and debriefing

Reliability

Consistency of results

Validity

Accuracy of measurement

Biological Perspective

Studies physical bases of behavior

Frontal lobe

Control center of the brain; it helps with decision making, planning, and problem solving; controls movement, speech, and emotions

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory info like touch, temperature, and pain; helps you understand where you body is in space; lets you; lets you know when something is sharp or soft

Temporal Lobe

key for hearing and understanding language; stores memories and helps you recognize faces; brains library for sound and memories

Occipital Lobe

lobe handles vision; helps you see, interpret colors, shapes, and movement; brains camera and image processor

Genetics:

the study of how traits like eye color, height, or hair type are passed from parents to their children

Genotype

The set of genes a person has. It’s like the instructions or recipe inside your body that you can’t see.

Phenotype

What you actually see—like eye color, height, or hair type. It’s how the genotype shows up on the outside.

Nature vs. Nurture debate

• Nature means we are born with certain traits because of our genes (like eye color, natural talents, or some behaviors).

• Nurture means we develop traits because of our environment and experiences (like how we’re raised, our education, or culture).

Nervous System

the body’s communication system. It sends messages between your brain and the rest of your body so you can move, feel, think, and react

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Made up of the brain and spinal cord. It controls most of the body and mind.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Made up of nerves that connect the rest of your body to the CNS. It has two parts:\n - Somatic System: Controls voluntary movements like walking.\n - Autonomic System: Controls involuntary functions like breathing and heartbeat. It includes:\n - Sympathetic system: Gets your body ready to act (like in danger – “fight or flight”).\n - Parasympathetic system: Calms your body down (“rest and digest”).

Neurons

Include dendrites, axons, and synapses.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers like dopamine and serotonin.

Endocrine System

Includes glands that secrete hormones like adrenaline and cortisol.

Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation = input

Perception = interpretation.

Properties of Waves

Amplitude, Wavelength, Frequency.

• Perception Processes

• Bottom-Up

• Top-Down

Bottom-Up

Data-driven

Top-Down

Experience/expectation-driven

Role of Attention:

Focuses cognitive resources on specific stimuli.

Sensory Memory

Immediate, brief recording

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Limited, ~20 seconds

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Unlimited capacity

Interference

Retroactive and proactive

Reconstruction

Memory distortion

Memory Strategies

Rehearsal, chunking, mnemonics

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Association between stimuli

Acquisition

This is when the learning happens. The dog starts to connect the bell (new thing) with food (automatic response).

Extinction

If the bell keeps ringing but no food comes, the dog stops responding to the bell

Spontaneous Recovery

After extinction, if the bell rings again later, the dog might suddenly start salivating again, even without more training.

Stimulus Generalization vs. Discrimination:

• Generalization: The dog salivates to things similar to the bell, like a buzzer or chime.

• Discrimination: The dog learns to only respond to the exact bell used during training, not other sounds.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases it

Positive Reinforcement

Add something good to increase behavior
Example: Getting candy for doing homework.

Negative Reinforcement

Take away something bad to increase behavior
Example: Turning off a loud alarm by waking up on time.

Observational Learning (Bandura):

Learning by watching (Bobo doll)

Primary Reinforcer

Satisfies basic needs (like food, water, warmth)

Secondary Reinforcer:

Learned rewards (like money, praise, or good grades)

Shaping:

Rewarding small steps toward a bigger behavior.

Modeling Process (Simple Definition):

This is how we learn by watching others, also called observational learning

Attention:

You have to notice what the person is doing.

Retention:

You must remember what you saw.

Reproduction:

You need to be able to do the action yourself.

Motivation:

You must want to copy the behavior.

Behaviorism:

Focuses on stimulus-response, excludes internal processes

Psychodynamic Perspective

: Behavior driven by unconscious motives and early experiences

Concepts

• Natural Concepts: Ideas we understand from experience (e.g., snow, dogs).

• Artificial Concepts: Ideas we learn by rules or definitions (e.g., math formulas, shapes).

Schemas

Mental "blueprints" that help us organize and understand information.

Role Schema

How we expect someone in a certain role to act (e.g., teachers give homework).

Event Schema

What we expect to happen in a certain situation (e.g., ordering at a restaurant).

Problem-Solving Barriers

• Functional Fixedness: Only seeing an object’s usual use.
  Example: Not realizing a coin can be used as a screwdriver.

• Mental Set: Using old solutions even when they don’t work anymore.

Convergent Thinking

Finding one right answer (used in tests).

Divergent Thinking

Coming up with many creative ideas (used in brainstorming).

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory:

• Analytical Intelligence: Solving problems, school smarts.

• Creative Intelligence: Thinking of new ideas.

• Practical Intelligence: "Street smarts," everyday problem-solving.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

• People are smart in different ways, including:

  • Linguistic (words)

  • Logical-mathematical (numbers)

  • Spatial (visual)

  • Musical

  • Bodily-kinesthetic (movement)

  • Interpersonal (social)

  • Intrapersonal (self-understanding)

  • Naturalistic (nature)

Bell Curve

• A graph showing normal distribution of intelligence scores:

  • Most people are average.

  • Fewer people are very low or very high.

Social Roles:

Behaviors expected from someone in a specific position (e.g., student, parent).

Norms

Rules for how people should act in a group

Scripts:

Expected actions in a certain situation (e.g., how to act in a restaurant).

Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment

• Showed how people can act in extreme ways based on assigned roles (e.g., guards vs. prisoners).

• Demonstrated that roles and the situation can strongly affect behavior.

Fundamental Attribution Error:

• Blaming someone’s behavior on their personality instead of the situation.

  • Example: Saying someone is lazy for being late, not considering traffic

Self-Serving Bias:

Taking credit for success (internal reasons) and blaming failure on others (external reasons).

• Example: “I passed because I’m smart; I failed because the test was unfair.”

Asch’s Conformity Study:

People will go along with a group, even if they know the group is wrong.

Milgram’s Obedience Study:

People followed orders to harm others because an authority told them to

Groupthink:

People in a group avoid conflict and make bad decisions just to keep everyone happy

Social Loafing:

People work less in a group than they would alone

Diffusion of Responsibility:

In a group, people feel less personally responsible to act

Social Facilitation:

People do better on easy tasks when others are watching

Deindividuation:

In groups, people lose their self-awareness and do things they wouldn’t do alone

Appraisal:

• Primary: Is it a threat?

• Secondary: Can I handle it?

Stress Types:

Acute (short-term), Chronic (long-term)

Fight-or-Flight Response:

The body’s quick reaction to danger or stress. Your heart beats faster, muscles tighten, and you get ready to either fight or run away. Controlled by the sympathetic nervous system

HPA Axis:

A system that controls the release of cortisol, the stress hormone. It helps your body deal with long-term stress, but too much cortisol over time can harm your health.

Problem-Focused Coping:

Trying to solve the problem causing the stress.
Example: Making a study plan for an upcoming test

Emotion-Focused Coping:

Trying to feel better emotionally instead of fixing the problem.
Example: Taking deep breaths or talking to a friend to calm down

Stress Health Effects:

High cortisol weakens immune system

Id:

The part of you that wants things right away (pleasure-driven, like a toddler)

Ego:

The part that deals with reality and makes choices between what you want and what’s right

Superego:

Your moral compass, telling you what’s right and wrong