AP Psych Unit 3: Development & Learning

Stability & change

Thematic issues in development across lifespan; focuses on behaviour and traits

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcement schedule that delivers reinforcement for each and every correct behaviour

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcement schedule that focuses on whether reinforcement is delivered on a time-based schedule or the number of behaviours performed

Observable behaviour

Actions or responses that can be directly observed and measured by others

Trust vs. mistrust

Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development; an infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver or develop a sense of mistrust

At what age does trust vs. mistrust take place?

Birth to 12-18 months

Autonomy vs. shame/doubt

Erikson’s second stage of psychosocial development; child’s energies are directed toward the development of physical skills, including walking, grasping, controlling the sphincter. Learns control but shame and doubt may develop.

At what age does autonomy vs. shame/doubt take place?

18 months to 3 years

Initiative vs. guilt

Erikson’s third stage of psychosocial development; child continues to become more assertive and to take more initiative but may be too forceful which can lead to guilt feelings

At what age does initiative vs. guilt take place?

3 to 6 years

Industry vs. inferiority

Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial development; child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure and incompetence

At what age does industry vs. inferiority take place?

6 to 12 years

At what age does initiative vs guilt take place?

3 to 6 years

Identity vs. role confusion

Erikson’s fifth stage of psychosocial development; teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics and religion

At what age does identity vs. role confusion take place?

Adolescence

Intimacy vs. isolation

Erikson’s sixth stage of psychosocial development; young adult must develop intimate relationships or suffer feelings of isolation

Social clock

Culture plays a role in determining when adulthood begins and when major life events occur

At what age does intimacy vs. isolation take place?

Young adulthood

Generativity vs. stagnation

Erikson’s seventh stage of psychosocial development; each adult must find some way to satisfy and support the next generation

At what age does generativity vs. stagnation take place?

Middle adulthood

Ego integrity vs. despair

Erikson’s eighth stage of psychosocial development; the culmination is a sense of acceptance of oneself and a sense of fulfillment

At what age does ego integrity vs. despair take place?

Late adulthood

Separation anxiety

Occurs when children express heightened anxiety or fear when away from a caregiver or in the presence of a stranger

Imprinting

The process why which certain animals form strong attachments early in life

Visual cliff

An apparatus created by Eleanor J. Gibson & Richard D. Walk used to investigate depth perception in human and other animal species.

What does the visual cliff demonstrate in infants?

An early ability to perceive depth

Continuity vs. discontinuity

Thematic issues of development across lifespan; focuses on gradual or distinct stages/changes

Nature vs. nurture

Thematic issues of development across lifespan; focuses on receiving traits from genetics or environment

Cross-sectional

Research method in which different ages are studied at the same time; fast & inexpensive but can have potential confounding variables

Longitudinal

Research method which follows the same people over time; more time consuming.

Teratogens

Chemicals/viruses that can reach the embryo or featus and can cause harm

Hormonal influences

Exposure to hormones during development affects baby

What are other influencers on development of a baby?

Maternal illnesses, genetic mutations, & environmental factors

Fine motor coordination

Use of smaller muscles in hands, fingers, lips, and tongue

Critical period

Specific time early in life when exposure to certain stimuli is more readily acquired

Sensitive period

Experiences produce normal development versus and ideal time range

Gross motor coordination

Use of larger muscles in arms, legs, and trunkR

Rooting reflex

When touched on the cheek, infants will turn that way and open their mouth

What are the main events during adolescence?

Growth spurts & puberty and the development of reproductive ability

Primary sex characteristics

Present at birth; allow for reproduction

Secondary sex characteristics

Develop during puberty

Menarche

Female menstrual cycle

When does an average female start menarche?

Around 12 years old

Spermarche

First male ejaculation during puberty

When does an average male first get spermarche?

Around 13 years old

Menopause

Menstrual cycle stops in a women

What happens as an individual ages?

There is a decline in mobility, flexibility, reaction time and visual/auditory sensory acuity

Gender

How someone views themselves; whether they feel masculine/feminine

Sex

Anatomical body parts that determine whether one is male/female

Foreclosure

First of 4 stages of identity development; making a choice without thinking

Indentity diffusion

Second of 4 stages of identity development; doesn’t understand nor care about certain decisions

Moratorium

Third of 4 states of identity development; thinking about a decision

Identity acheivement

Final stage of 4 stages of identity development; has come to a conclusion about a decision

When are the 4 stages of identity development used?

During the adolescent years to develop a sense of identity for who they will become as an adult

Schema

Concepts/frameworks to organize information

Assimilation

Taking in new information & adding it to the current schema; not changing schema

Accommodation

Taking in new information and changing the schema to fit in new information

Sensorimotor stage

First stage of cognitive development; when information comes through senses and actions

What age does the stage sensorimotor take place in?

0 - 2 years old

Object permanence

Objects exist even when not perceived

Preoperational stage

Second stage of cognitive development; one learns to use a language, no concrete logic

What age does the stage preoperational take place in?

2 - 6/7 years old

Conservation

Property is the same despite changes

Reversibility

Something can go both ways (+/-)

Animism

Object is alive/has feelings

Egocentrism

One only sees their point of view

Theory of mind

Your thoughts/feelings are different than others; development of empathy

Which terms are lacking in the preoperational stage?

Conservation & reversiblity

Concrete operational stage

Third stage of cognitive development; one thinks logically about actual events (“black and white”)

What age does the stage concrete operational take place in?

7 - 11 years old

What occurs in the concrete operational stage?

The pre-operational terms are mastered

Formal operational stage

Final stage of cognitive development; abstract/hypothetical thinking (“grey”)

What age does the stage formal operational take place in?

Ages 12 and up

Which stage is not accomplished by everyone?

The formal operational stage

What did Vygotsky believe about the cognitive stages?

Stages were not as discontinuous; said development happened because of our interactions with more cognitively developed people which increase & stretch our thinking

Scaffolding

Temporary support to develop higher levels of thinking

Zone of proximal development

Difference between what you can do alone versus when working with older/more experienced partner

Crystallized intelligence

Increases with age; accumulated knowledge & verbal skills

Fluid intelligence

Decreases with age; ability to reason speedily and abstractly

Dementia

Deterioration of memory and language/executive functioning; risk increases with age

Cooing

Vowel-like sound when happy

At what age does cooing take place?

Around 2 months old

Babbling

Consonant and vowel sounds

Around what age does babbling take place?

Around 4 months old

One-word

Speaking in a single word

At what age does one-word speaking take place?

Around 1 year old

Telegraphic speech

Combining verbs & nouns (like a telegram)

What age does telegraphic speech take place?

2 years old

Phonemes

Smallest unit of sound (ex. ch-, a-, t-)

Morphemes

Smallest unit that carries meaning (ex: chat = 1 morpheme)

Semantics

Meaning of words and phrases (ex. “raining cats and dogs”)

Grammar

How language works; includes syntax (ex. verb tenses, spelling & capitalization)

Syntax

Rules for arranging words into sentences to create meaning

Adverse childhood experience

Also known as ACE; Abuse/trauma/substance abuse/mental health issue in a parent

Parallel play

Next to another child but engaged in own activity

Pretend play

Make believe/fantasy; often play role (mother, teacher)

Imaginary audience:

False belief that you are constantly the center of attention from others (self-consious)

Personal fable

Belief in your uniqueness and invulnerability

Emerging adulthood

18-25 years old; not adolescent, but not an adult yet

Classical conditioning

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response