FSHN 350 - Carbohydrates (Unit 2.1)

studied byStudied by 11 people
5.0(1)
Get a hint
Hint

What are the pathways of carb metabolism

1 / 105

encourage image

There's no tags or description

Looks like no one added any tags here yet for you.

106 Terms

1

What are the pathways of carb metabolism

  • glycogenesis

  • glycogenolysis

  • glycolysis

  • gluconeogenesis

New cards
2

What is Glycogenesis

  • making glycogen from glucose

New cards
3

What is Glycogenolysis

  • break glycogen into glucose

New cards
4

What is Glycolysis

  • breakdown of glucose into pyruvate

New cards
5

What is Gluconeogenesis

  • produce glucose from a non-carb intermediate

New cards
6

Important tissues for glucose metabolism

  • liver

  • muscle

New cards
7

The liver

  • takes up 20% of glucose

  • uses GLUT 2 to transport to get into the cell

New cards
8

The muscles

  • take up 80% of glucose

  • uses GLUT 4 to transport to get into the cell

New cards
9

How is muscle selfish

  • once muscle reaches its glucose limit, it stops taking up more -

  • once muscle breaks down glycogen into glu, it does not release it into the blood

New cards
10

Process of making G6P

  • glucose enters the cell

  • phosphate attached to glucose (ATP --> ADP)

  • forming G6P

New cards
11

GLUT transporters

  • Glu enters the muscle cell via GLUT 4, phosphorylated by hexokinase -- making G6P

  • Glu enters the liver cell via GLUT 2, phosphorylated by glucokinase -- making G6P

New cards
12

Enzymes that make G6P

  • hexokinase in the muscle

  • glucokinase in the liver

  • both phosphorylate glucose into G6P

New cards
13

3 fates of G6P

  • G6P --> glycogen (glycogenesis)

  • G6P --> back to glucose (glycogenolysis)

  • G6P --> glycolysis

New cards
14

What, where and when of Glycogenesis

  • glucose --> glycogen

  • in muscles and liver

  • when in periods of energy excess

  • anabolic

  • consumes energy

New cards
15

Steps of Glycogenesis with Enzymes

Glucose --(a-b)----> G6P ---(c-e)----> Glycogen a - hexokinase (muscle) b - glucokinase (liver) c - glycogenin d- glycogen synthase e - branching enzyme

New cards
16

What are the steps of Glycogenesis

  1. glucose --> G6P

  2. G6P --> G1P

  3. G1P --> UDP-glucose

  4. UDP-glucose + glycogenin = Glycogen (short chain of Glu)

  5. Glycogen chains extended w/ glycogen synthase

  6. Glycogen adds branching via branching enzyme

New cards
17

Glycogenin

  • enzyme in glycogenesis that attaches to UDP-glucose to make a short glu chain

  • attaches via α 1-4 bonds

New cards
18

Glycogen synthase

  • enzyme that extends the short glu chain (glycogen chain)

  • extends via α 1-4 bonds

  • when G6P conc. increase, conc. of Glycogen synthase increase, meaning more glycogen is going to be made

New cards
19

Branching enzyme

  • enzyme that creates branching points after glycogen has been created

  • creates branches via α 1-6 bonds

New cards
20

Regulation of Glycogenesis

  • G6P inhibits hexokinase in muscle (negative feedback)

  • G6P does NOT inhibit glucokinase in liver

  • G6P increases Glycogen synthesis

  • Epi and glucagon inhibit Glycogen synthesis

  • insulin directly regulates glucose uptake in muscle (via GLUT 4)

  • insulin indirectly regulates glucose uptake in liver

  • insulin increases activity of glucokinase

  • insulin activates glycogen synthase

New cards
21

When would we be using Glycogenolysis

  • when we need to break glycogen into glucose

  • fasting, starving, working out

New cards
22

What, where and when of Glycogenolysis

  • glycogen --> glucose units

  • in liver and muscle

  • when in periods of energy deficit

  • catabolic

  • Glycogen phosphorylase will use a phosphate to take Glu off, making G1P

New cards
23

Glycogenolysis (muscle)

  • Glycogen --> G1P --> G6P --> Glycolysis

  • muscle does not want to give up any Glu so it won't go back to Glu but will go to Glycolysis

New cards
24

Glycogenolysis (Liver)

  • Glycogen --> G1P --> G6P --> Glycolysis

  • Glycogen --> G1P --> G6P --> Glucose

  • will make glucose when the body needs more

  • liver is the master Glu regulator

New cards
25

Insulin and glucagon in the pathways

  • insulin increases Glycogen synthase (make glycogen)

  • glucagon and epi increase Glycogen phosphorylase (make G1P)

New cards
26

What, where and when of Glycolysis

  • break down Glu into pyruvate

  • cytoplasm

  • when in periods of energy demand

  • functions in anaerobic and aerobic conditions

  • catabolic

  • yields energy

New cards
27

Glycolysis steps (investment phase)

  1. Glucose ---(ATP-->ADP)---> G6P

  2. F6P ---(PFK)---> F1,6BisP

  3. F1,6BisP--> 2 G3P carbon molecules

  • 2 mol ATP invested to make 2-G3P

New cards
28

How is PFK regulated

  • AMP + (positive feedback, high conc. of AMP, b/c ATP broken down into AMP, so we need more ATP)

  • ATP - (negative feedback, high conc. of ATP, so stop making so much)

New cards
29

Glycolysis steps (payoff phase)

  1. make ATP from NAD+ ---> NADH

  2. make ATP via substrate level

  3. making pyruvate + ATP via substrate level

  • we use pyruvate kinase to make pyruvate

New cards
30

Product of Glycolysis

  • 4 ATP

  • 2 NADH

  • 2 pyruvate

New cards
31

Regulation of Glycolysis

  • AMP -- always increase

  • Insulin - increase

  • F1,6BisPhosphate -- increase

  • ATP -- always decrease

  • Citrate -- decrease

  • Acetyl CoA -- decrease

New cards
32

How to get electrons into the mitochondria

  • Malate-Aspartate shuttle

  • Glycerol-Phosphate shuttle

New cards
33

Malate-Aspartate shuttle

  • e- passed from NADH to oxaloacetate (OAA), forming malate

  • malate easily enters mitochondria

  • malate gives e- to new NAD and forms NADH (in the mitochondria)

  • NADH goes to the ETC to make ATP

New cards
34

Glycerol-Phosphate shuttle

  • e- passed from NADH to DHAP, forming glycerol-phosphate

  • glycerol-phosphate easily enters mitochondria

  • glycerol-phosphate gives e- to new FAD and forms FADH (in the mitochondria)

  • FADH goes to the ETC to make ATP

New cards
35

Liver overview

  • Glu enters -- via GLUT 2

  • Glu phosphorylated -- via glucokinase (GK)

  • insulin activates (GK)

  • insulin activates glycogen synthase

  • Glycogen phosphorylase -- break Glycogen into G1P

  • Glu-6-Phosphatase -- breaks down G6P into Glu

New cards
36

Muscle overview

  • Glu enters -- via GLUT 4 (insulin dependent)

  • Glu phosphorylated -- via hexokinase (HK) inhibited by G6P (negative feedback)

  • G6P has negative feedback on HK

  • insulin activates (HK)

  • insulin activates glycogen synthase

  • Glycogen phosphorylase -- break Glycogen into G1P

New cards
37

Liver story (Glycogenesis)

  • Glu enters the cell via GLUT 2

  • Glu gets phosphorylated by glucokinase, making G6P

  • G6P converted to G1P

  • G1P ultimately uses Glycogenin to make a Glu chain

  • Glycogen chain extended with Glycogen synthase

  • Glycogen branches out with the branching enzyme

  • the presence of insulin will activate GK and glycogen synthase

New cards
38

Liver story (Glycogenolysis)

  • Glycogen broken down by glucose phosphorylase into G1P

  • G1P --> G6P

  • G6P --> Glu via Glucose 6 phosphatase

  • glucagon receptors help with the release of Glu

New cards
39

what does high G6P mean?

  • a lot of G6P means a lot of glycogen can be formed, so a lot of glycogen synthase is going to be needed

New cards
40

Liver story (Glycolysis)

  • Glycogen broken down by glycogen phosphorylase into G1P

  • G1P --> G6P

  • G6P --> Glycolysis

New cards
41

Muscle story (Glycogenesis)

  • Glu enters the cell via GLUT 4 (insulin dependent)

  • Glu gets phosphorylated by hexokinase, making G6P (G6P has negative feedback on HK)

  • G6P converted to G1P

  • G1P ultimately uses Glycogenin to make a Glu chain

  • Glycogen chain extended with Glycogen synthase

  • Glycogen branches out with the branching enzyme

  • the presence of insulin will activate HK and glycogen synthase

New cards
42

Muscle story (Glycogenolysis)

  • cannot make Glu because muscle has no Glucose 6 Phosphatase

New cards
43

Muscle story (Glycolysis)

  • Glycogen broken down by glycogen phosphorylase into G1P

  • G1P --> G6P

  • G6P --> Glycolysis

New cards
44

3 fates of pyruvate

  • make Acetyl CoA

  • make lactate

  • make ethanol

New cards
45

Pyruvate --> Acetyl CoA

  • CO2 released

  • NADH created (NAD+ --> NADH)

  • via PDH enzyme

  • inhibited by ATP, NADH and Acetyl CoA

New cards
46

Pyruvate --> Lactate

  • NADH --> NAD+

  • via LDH enzyme

New cards
47

When do we make lactate

  • when the rate of pyruvate formation, exceeds the rate of Acetyl CoA formation

New cards
48

What pathways need NAD to function

  • Glycolysis

  • TCA

  • pyruvate --> Acetyl CoA

New cards
49

Importance of NAD+ in forming lactate

  • we need NAD for the TCA

  • the pyruvate --> lactate reaction allows for other reactions to occur because NAD+ is produced in this reaction (NADH --> NAD+)

  • other reactions: the ones mentioned above

New cards
50

Lactate transportation

  • intracellular lactate shuttle

  • intercellular lactate shuttle

New cards
51

Intracellular lactate shuttle

  • stays in the cell that made it

  • lactate goes to mitochondria to undergo oxidation to pyruvate via mitochondrial LDH

New cards
52

Intercellular lactate shuttle

  • lactate can enter the circulation and go to other tissues

  • via the Cori Cycle

New cards
53

Lactate misconceptions

  • it is a waste product produced by metabolism

  • is formed only under anaerobic conditions

  • is the cause for muscle soreness

  • all are wrong

New cards
54

Cori Cycle

  • intercellular shuttle

  • if rate of lactate production in cell is too high, it ships it out

New cards
55

Cori Cycle story

  • lactate accumulates in skeletal muscle and skeletal muscle lacks glucose 6 phosphatase

  • it ships the lactate to the liver so the lactate can be converted into Glu via gluconeogenesis

New cards
56

MCT

  • intracellular

  • lactate enters the mitochondria via the MCT

  • lactate then forms pyruvate

  • then go to the TCA and make ATP

New cards
57

What, where, when of Gluconeogenesis

  • making Glu from non-carb

  • liver, kidney, intestine

  • when low blood Glu

  • consume energy

  • yield NADH

New cards
58

When does Gluconeogenesis happen

  • when we are fasting

New cards
59

Gluconeogenesis story

  • say you ate at 7:00 and then went to bed

  • immediately after - the body will break down that food for Glu

  • 4 hours after - glycogen stored in the liver will be broken down

  • 12-18 hours after - glycogen stores are empty so body goes through gluconeogenesis to increase blood Glu

New cards
60

What enters Gluconeogenesis

  • pyruvate

  • lactate

  • glycerol from mono, di and triglycerides

  • glycogenic amino acids

New cards
61

Steps of Gluconeogenesis

  • pyruvate --(1+2)--> phosphoenolpyruvate --> reverse to glycolysis --> Fructose 1,6 BisPhosphate --(3)--> Fructose 6 phosphate --> G6P --(4)--> Glucose

New cards
62

Gluconeogenesis enzymes

  1. pyruvate carboxylase

  2. PEP carboxykinase

  3. fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase

  4. glucose 6 phosphatase

New cards
63

Regulation of Gluconeogenesis

  • opposite of glycolysis

  • AMP -

  • ATP +

  • Citrate +

New cards
64

Pentose phosphate pathway

  • detour off glycolysis

  • NO ATP made

  • produce NADPH and R5P

  • high after a carb high diet

New cards
65

NADH in pentose phosphate pathway

  • used for lipid synthesis

New cards
66

R5P in pentose phosphate pathway

  • used for synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids

  • can lead to increased levels of uric acid

New cards
67

Glycogen storage diseases

  1. McArdle's Disease (GSD-V)

  2. Von Gierke's Disease (GSD 1)

New cards
68

McArdle's Disease (GSD-V)

  • exercise intolerance

  • low lactate levels after intense exercise

  • happens in skeletal muscle

  • no glycogen phosphorylase (so glycogen cannot be broken down when exercising)

New cards
69

Von Gierke's Disease (GSD 1)

  • most common glycogen storage disease

  • severe hypoglycemia (low blood Glu)

  • high glycogen in the liver and kidney

  • can lead to an enlarged liver -- hepatomegaly

  • can't get rid of glycogen once its formed

  • glucose 6 phosphatase is inhibited

  • eat lower carb diets to solve issue

New cards
70

Fructose metabolism

  • absorption into the cell via GLUT 2

  • not insulin dependent

  • liver takes 20% Glu and 75% fructose

  • fructose --fructokinase--> fructose 1 phosphate

New cards
71

Where does fructose join glycolysis

  • fructose enters at the 2-G3P step

  • so after the investment phase

  • it bypasses the rate limiting step (which has PFK)

New cards
72

Once fat is created the liver can

  • burn it

  • store it

  • package into VLDL

  • VLDL carries and ships triglycerides

New cards
73

3 ways fructose increases risk of disease

  • increase fatty liver

  • increase risk heart disease b/c of VLDL

  • increase levels of uric acid

New cards
74

Increase of fructose meaning

  • means ATP depletion

  • which makes AMP

  • AMP creates uric acid

New cards
75

What is uric acid

  • risk factor for heart disease and gout

  • gout -- painful inflammation

  • linked to diabetes

New cards
76

Glucose vs Fructose metabolism

  • both use GLUT 2 to enter cell

  • both phosphorylated by glucokinase and fructokinase

  • fructose dangerous b/c its a fast pathway (b/c it bypasses PFK)

New cards
77

How fructose increase risk of heart disease

  • increases gout b/c ATP depletion

  • increase VLDL

New cards
78

What does fructose lead to

  • it bypasses PFK and increases Acetyl CoA conc.

  • this is converted to fat and can lead to:

  • obesity, fatty liver and increased VLDL

New cards
79

What is Type 1 diabetes

  • the body can not make insulin

New cards
80

What is Type 2 diabetes

  • the body can make insulin, it just cannot utilize it

New cards
81

Type 1 effect

  • no insulin means:

  • GLUT 4 transporters do not work - so tissues starve for Glu

  • Glu stuck outside the cells

  • people must inject Glu

  • lack of insulin = increase break down of fat

  • high fate loss = high ketone production (dangerous)

New cards
82

Type 2 effect

  • cannot use insulin means:

  • Glu cannot get into the cell

New cards
83

What leads to Type 2

  • over nutrition leads to type 2

  • obesity is the biggest risk factor

  • most common type (95% of people get this one)

New cards
84

4 areas impacted by lack of insulin

  • fat

  • liver

  • muscle

  • blood

New cards
85

Fat

  • increase lipolysis -- breakdown of fat

New cards
86

Liver

  • increase hepatic glucose output -- increased Glycogenolysis, so Glu

  • increase VLDL -- bad cholesterol

New cards
87

Muscle

  • decreased Glu uptake

  • decreased glycogen synthesis

New cards
88

Blood

  • decreased vasodilation

New cards
89

First step towards diabetes

  • insulin intolerance

New cards
90

Insulin intolerance effects

  • less Glu taken by insulin

  • so body makes more insulin to compensate

  • increased intolerance leads to increased production of insulin

New cards
91

Insulin intolerance story

  • insulin production increases as insulin resistance/tolerance goes up

  • Glu will stay normal (during this time) b/c of increased insulin production

  • pancreatic beta cells reach Beta Cell Failure as resistance goes up and production cannot meet that

  • this is when diabetes occurs

New cards
92

Diagnosing diabetes (3 tests)

  • check A1C

  • being over 126 mg/dL (fasting)

  • being over 200 mg/dL (75g Glu)

New cards
93

A1C test

  • the percent of hemoglobin in blood, that is bound to Glu

  • over 6.5% = you have diabetes

New cards
94

Fasting test

  • test bloog Glu after 8 hrs of fasting

  • over 126 mg/dL = you have diabetes

New cards
95

75g Glu test

  • take a 75g sugary drink in water, wait 2 hours

  • over 200 mg/dL = you have diabetes

New cards
96

Limitations of these tests

  • you could have fasting blood Glu and be on your way to diabetes

  • there are different reactions for those that drink 75g (different body sizes)

  • A1C cannot be used in pregnant moms

  • b/c has a wide snapshot range, detects for 3 month range, not for right this second

New cards
97

Glucagon and diabetes

  • increases gluconeogenesis

  • increases glycogenolysis

New cards
98

Types 1 and 2

  • both have increased glucagon

  • associated with hyperglucagonemia

New cards
99

What does high glucagon mean for diabetes

  • glucagon means more Glu from non carbs and more Glycogen broken into Glu

  • all this Glu makes diabetes worse because insulin already can't do it's job

New cards
100

Gestational diabetes

  • women that are not diabetes, end up having high blood Glu during pregnancy

New cards

Explore top notes

note Note
studied byStudied by 250 people
... ago
5.0(3)
note Note
studied byStudied by 38 people
... ago
5.0(3)
note Note
studied byStudied by 21 people
... ago
5.0(1)
note Note
studied byStudied by 1 person
... ago
5.0(1)
note Note
studied byStudied by 6 people
... ago
5.0(1)
note Note
studied byStudied by 15 people
... ago
4.5(2)
note Note
studied byStudied by 7 people
... ago
5.0(1)
note Note
studied byStudied by 139 people
... ago
5.0(2)

Explore top flashcards

flashcards Flashcard (34)
studied byStudied by 1 person
... ago
5.0(1)
flashcards Flashcard (23)
studied byStudied by 5 people
... ago
5.0(1)
flashcards Flashcard (242)
studied byStudied by 22 people
... ago
5.0(1)
flashcards Flashcard (47)
studied byStudied by 4 people
... ago
5.0(1)
flashcards Flashcard (20)
studied byStudied by 18 people
... ago
5.0(2)
flashcards Flashcard (110)
studied byStudied by 2 people
... ago
5.0(1)
flashcards Flashcard (26)
studied byStudied by 15 people
... ago
5.0(1)
flashcards Flashcard (62)
studied byStudied by 1167 people
... ago
5.0(1)
robot