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central dogma
dna → mrna via transcription, mrna → protein via translation
genetic code
this is made up of pyrimidines and purines linked by proteins
codon
mRNA, made 5’→3’, follows base-pairing rules (GC, UT, TA)
RNA polymerase
enzyme that performs transcription, attaches to the 3’ end; allows for the lack of a primer (like DNA replication needs)
transcription factors
in eukaryotic cells, these are used to recognize and bind to the promoter
sigma
in prokaryotic cells, this is used to recognize and bind to the promoter
promoter
signals the start point for transcription of a gene, made of a specific base pair
TATA box - several AT base pairs
promoter vs start codon
promoters are regions of DNA where transcription starts (ex. the 5’ end), while start codons are the first bases to be translated on an mRNA (ex. start codon AUG)
terminator
at the end of a gene, these cause transcription to stop
template strand
directs sequence of RNA by providing complementary bases to match with the new RNA nucleotides, with it’s opposite being the coding strand
3’ end
when RNA is transcribed, nucleotides are added to the ___________
this is also where the poly-a tail goes
5’ cap
this end receives a modified nucleotide
poly-a tail
at the 3’ end of the mRNA molecule, this is a structure made of many amino acids stacked together
splicing
removing introns and joining exons to mature mRNA
mRNA → continous coding sequence
introns
when mRNA is matured/spliced, these are taken out
exons
when mRNA is spliced, these are kept and joined together
tRNA
transfer RNA, aids the cell’s ability to translate an mRNA message into a protein
each one of these has an anticodon on the other end, with anticoding having a complementary codon on the mRNA
they also connect the right amino acid to the right codon on mRNA
tRNA anti-codon ←→mRNA codon
anticodon
base-pairs with complementary codons on mRNA
every __________ pairs with a codon on the mRNA
amino-acyl tRNA synthetase
links the right amino acids with the right tRNA
ribosomes
__________ are made out of ______________ RNA and proteins, consisting of a larger and smaller subunit
brings tRNAs with mRNA codons together → protein synthesis
the large subunits contain 3 binding sites for tRNA (APE)
translation
mRNA → proteins
a-site
this location in the ribosome’s large subunit holds the tRNA that carries the next amino acid to be added to the chain
p-site
this location in the ribosome’s large subunit holds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain
e-site
this location in the ribosome’s large subunit is where the tRNAs leave the ribosome
APE
abbreviation for a-site, p-site, e-site
start codon
the methionine tRNA attaches at the _______________
consistent codon that initiates translation and sets the reading frame
stop codon
termination occurs when a ________________ in the mRNA reaches the A site of the ribosome
peptide bond
during elongation on translation, this type of bond is formed
point mutations
changes in just one base pair of a gene
nonsense
a _____________ mutation is where one of the amino acids are changed into a stop codon, and nearly always leads to a nonfunctional protein
silent
a __________ mutation is where there’s no effect on the amino acids produced by a codon due to the redundancy in the genetic code
as a product, the code is different but you still get the same amino acids as if it were normal
missense
a ___________ mutation is where amino acids are still coded for, but it’s not the right one
insertions
a type of frameshift mutation that often has the most disastrous effect on the resulting protein more than substitutions
adds a base-pair
deletions
a type of frameshift mutation that often has the most disastrous effect on the resulting protein more than substitutions
removes a base-pair
frameshift mutation
insertion or deletion of nucleotides may alter the reading frame and thus causing the most disaster in the proteins, being known as a _____________________
prokaryotes
in ____________, translation and transcription happen simultaneously
spliceosomes
enzyme that carries out most RNA splicing, with some RNA splicing happening spontaneously
UTR
untranslated region of the mRNA molecule, acts as a buffer to protect the coding region
coding strand
the complementary base strand for the template strand
initiation
the first stage of translation; methionine tRNA binds to the start codon (AUG)
elongation
the second stage of translation; amino acids are joined together
amino acids are added one by one to the last AA placed down
tRNA binds to A-site
peptide bond forms at P-site
tRNA moves from A-P-E
termination
the last stage of translation; stop codon is reached and the release factor binds
release factor
during the termination of translation, the A site accepts a protein
instead of an amino acid being joined to the chain, a water molecule is joined instead
not
mutations may ___ cause disease or disorder in these locations
a non-coding region of DNA (UCR) aka buffer
in an intron
mutations that cause no change in the amino acids
mutations in body cells cannot be passed to offspring
mutations in sex cells can be passed to offspring