Ap Psychology Unit 1

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Nature

Refers to biological and genetic influences on behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Focuses on how evolution influences behavior, emphasizing adaptation and survival.

Natural Selection

The process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations.

Behavior Genetics

The study of the influence of genetic factors on behavior.

Mutations

Random changes in genes that can lead to new traits.

Environment

The external factors that influence behavior, including culture and life experiences.

Heredity

The genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Genes

Units of heredity that contribute to an individual's traits.

Genome

The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.

Nurture

The influence of environmental factors on behavior and development.

Eugenics

The controversial belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population.

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

Twins that originate from a single fertilized egg and share the same genetic material.

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins

Twins that develop from two separate fertilized eggs, sharing about 50% of their genetic material.

Interaction

The interplay between genetic and environmental factors in shaping behavior.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors affect gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.

Nervous System

The body’s electrochemical communication system, consisting of the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Central Nervous System

Composed of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information.

Nerves

Bundles of axons that transmit signals between the central nervous system and the rest of the body.

Reflex

An automatic response to a stimulus that involves the spinal cord.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary bodily functions; subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for 'fight or flight' response in stressful situations.

Peripheral Nervous System

Connects the central nervous system to the limbs and organs; includes sensory and motor pathways.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Promotes 'rest and digest' functions, calming the body after stress.

Neurons

The basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit information.

Cell Body

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and organelles.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons.

Axon

The long, slender part of a neuron that transmits signals away from the cell body.

Myelin

A fatty substance that insulates axons, increasing signal transmission speed.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where communication occurs.

Glial Cells

Support cells in the nervous system that protect and provide nutrients to neurons.

Reflex Arc

The pathway that controls a reflex action, typically involving sensory and motor neurons.

Sensory Neurons

Nerve cells that carry information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.

Action Potential

The electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The principle that a neuron either fires at full strength or not at all.

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when the inside of the neuron becomes more positive.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after transmitting a signal.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease that affects the myelin sheath of neurons, leading to impaired signal transmission.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing (e.g., glutamate).

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in movement, emotion, and the reward system.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system that regulate various bodily functions.

Leptin

A hormone that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Refractory Period

The period following an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire again.

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it is not firing, characterized by a negative charge inside the cell.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disorder that affects communication between nerves and muscles.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing (e.g., GABA).

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, sleep, and appetite.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood enhancers.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement and memory.

Endocrine System

The body’s system of glands that secrete hormones.

Adrenaline

A hormone that prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates appetite and increases food intake.

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in social bonding and reproductive functions.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps regulate anxiety.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in the perception of pain.

Agonist

A substance that enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks the action of a neurotransmitter.

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that affect mood, perception, and behavior.

Substance Use Disorder

A condition characterized by an individual's inability to control their use of substances.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and arousal (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

Caffeine

A stimulant found in coffee and tea that increases alertness.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant that increases dopamine levels, leading to intense euphoria.

Methamphetamines

Highly addictive stimulants that increase energy and alertness.

Ecstasy

A synthetic drug that has stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.

Tolerance

A phenomenon where increasing amounts of a drug are needed to achieve the same effect.

Withdrawal

Symptoms that occur when a person stops using a substance they are dependent on.

Opioids

A class of drugs that includes pain relievers and can be highly addictive.

Heroin

An opioid that produces intense euphoria and is highly addictive.

Addiction

A compulsive need for a substance, characterized by withdrawal symptoms and tolerance.

Reuptake Inhibitor

A drug that blocks the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their availability.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates).

Barbiturates

Depressant drugs that can be addictive and are used to treat anxiety and sleep disorders.

Alcohol

A depressant that impairs judgment and coordination and has a high potential for addiction.

Hallucinogens

Substances that alter perception and can induce hallucinations (e.g., LSD, marijuana).

Near-Death Experience

A phenomenon reported by people who have had close encounters with death, often involving visions and feelings of peace.

Marijuana

A psychoactive drug derived from the cannabis plant that has both stimulant and depressant effects.

LSD

A powerful hallucinogenic drug that alters perception and mood.

Biological Psychology

The study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach that considers biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior.

Levels of Analysis

Different perspectives used to understand behavior, including biological, psychological, and social levels.

Brain Plasticity (neuroplasticity)

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.

EEG

A method to record electrical activity in the brain.

MEG

A technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical activity.

MRI

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain.

CT

A method that uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain.

PET

A scan that detects radioactive glucose in the brain to visualize metabolic activity.

fMRI

A technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

Lesions

Areas of damaged brain tissue, often used to study brain function.

Brain Stem

The part of the brain responsible for basic life functions, including breathing and heart rate.

Hindbrain

The region at the base of the brain that includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

Midbrain

A portion of the brain involved in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye and in auditory and visual processing.

Forebrain

The largest part of the brain, including structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Medulla Oblongata

Part of the brainstem that controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Activating System (Reticular Formation)

A network of neurons involved in regulating arousal and sleep-wake transitions.

Cerebellum

A brain structure that regulates coordination and balance.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in complex functions such as thought, perception, and decision-making.

Limbic System

A group of structures in the brain involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.

Split Brain

A condition resulting from severing the corpus callosum, leading to two hemispheres that can operate independently.

Broca’s Area

A region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.

Wernicke’s Area

A region in the temporal lobe associated with language comprehension.

Cortex Specialization

The concept that different areas of the cerebral cortex are specialized for different functions.

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

The principle that the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa.

Aphasia

A language disorder resulting from brain damage, affecting speech production or comprehension.

Occipital Lobe

The area of the cerebral cortex responsible for visual processing.

Temporal Lobe

The area of the cerebral cortex associated with auditory processing and language.

Parietal Lobe

The area of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing sensory information from the body.

Association Areas

Regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate information from different senses and are involved in higher cognitive functions.

Somatosensory Cortex

The area of the parietal lobe responsible for processing touch and pain sensations.

Frontal Lobe

The area of the brain associated with higher-level functions such as reasoning, planning, and movement.

Prefrontal Cortex

The front part of the frontal lobe involved in complex cognitive behavior and decision-making.

Motor Cortex

The area of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary movements.

Thalamus

The brain’s sensory switchboard that relays information to the appropriate areas of the cortex.

Hypothalamus

A small brain region that regulates homeostasis and controls the endocrine system.

Pituitary Gland

The "master gland" of the endocrine system, regulating growth and other hormones.

Hippocampus

A structure involved in memory formation and spatial navigation.

Amygdala

A region of the brain involved in emotion processing, particularly fear and aggression.

Corpus Callosum

The bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres, allowing communication between them.

Consciousness

The awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The study of the relationship between brain function and cognitive processes.

Dual Processing

The principle that information is processed simultaneously on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Parallel Processing

The ability of the brain to process multiple aspects of information simultaneously.

Sequential Processing

The processing of information one aspect at a time, typical of tasks that require focused attention.

Sleep

A state of reduced consciousness, characterized by a decrease in sensory activity and muscle tone.

Circadian Rhythm

The biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle over a 24-hour period.

Jet Lag

A temporary condition resulting from travel across multiple time zones, disrupting the circadian rhythm.

EEG Patterns

Brainwave patterns recorded using an electroencephalogram, used to study sleep and consciousness.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A condition in which individuals act out their dreams during REM sleep.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breathing during sleep.

Somnambulism

Also known as sleepwalking, a behavior disorder characterized by walking or performing other complex behaviors while asleep.

Alpha Waves

Brain waves associated with relaxed, awake states, typically observed when a person is resting.

NREM

Non-rapid eye movement sleep, characterized by a lack of eye movement and lower brain activity.

Hallucinations

Perceptions that occur without an external stimulus, often experienced in altered states of consciousness.

Hypnagogic Sensations

Vivid sensory experiences that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep.

Delta Waves

Slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

REM

Rapid eye movement sleep, a stage of sleep characterized by vivid dreams and increased brain activity.

REM Rebound

The phenomenon where individuals experience increased REM sleep following periods of deprivation.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythms.

Dream

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts occurring during sleep, often involving vivid imagery.

Activation Synthesis Theory

A theory proposing that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.

Consolidation Theory

The theory that sleep helps consolidate and strengthen memories formed during the day.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks.