Unit 2: Cognition (AP Psychology)

Perception

The process by which individuals interpret and organize sensory information to understand their environment. It involves recognizing, organizing, and making sense of sensory input.

Internal Factors of Perception

• Psychological State: Emotions, motivations, and expectations can alter how we perceive information.

• Past Experiences: Previous encounters can shape how we interpret current stimuli, leading to biases in perception.

• Individual Differences: Personal traits, such as personality and cognitive abilities, can dictate how a person perceives situations or stimuli.

External Factors of Perception

• Cultural Background: People's cultural contexts can affect their interpretations and reactions to various stimuli, shaping perceptions in distinct ways.

• Social Influences: The presence or expectations of others can modify how we perceive an event or situation.

• Physical Environment: Aspects of the environment, such as lighting, color, and noise level, play a significant role in shaping our perceptions.

Visual Perceptual Processes

Involves the interpretation and organization of visual stimuli to help individuals understand their environment.

Internal Factors VPP

• Psychological State: A person in a bad mood might misinterpret neutral expressions as negative.

• Past Experiences: If someone has had a negative experience with a specific color or object, they may perceive similar stimuli as threatening or undesirable.

• Individual Differences: An individual with a high level of creativity may interpret visual information more expansively compared to a more rigid thinker.

External Factors VPP

• Cultural Background: For instance, certain colors may carry different meanings across cultures, affecting perception.

• Social Influences: Social cues can lead to conformity, where individuals align their perceptions with those of others in the group.

• Physical Environment: For example, poor lighting can lead to an incorrect perception of an object's color or details.

Correct Interpretations

When individuals' psychological states and external conditions align positively with the stimuli.

Incorrect Interpretations

When emotional biases or cultural differences interplay with the visual input, leading to misunderstandings of what is actually presented.

Psychological Concepts and Theories

They  play a significant role in understanding how individuals think, solve problems, make judgments, and make decisions.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding.

Information Processing Model

outlines how information is processed in stages – Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

Encoding

The initial step in creating a new memory. It is the process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored, which is crucial for effective decision-making.

Transforming Sensory Input

When information is received through the senses (sight, sound, touch, etc.), it needs to be converted into a form that the brain can process.

Types of Encoding

• Visual Encoding

• Acoustic Encoding

• Semantic Encoding

Visual Encoding

Involves the encoding of images and visual sensory information. 

Acoustic Encoding

Focuses on the sounds associated with stimuli. 

Semantic Encoding

Involves processing the meaning of information, which often leads to deeper memory retention.

Enhancing Effective Encoding

Techniques such as rehearsal (the repetition of information), organization (categorizing information), and mnemonics (memory aids) can enhance encoding by making it easier to store information.

Storage

The second stage in the Information Processing Model. It is the process of maintaining information over time to ensure that it is accessible for future judgments.

Maintenance of Information

Information needs to be held in memory for potential future retrieval. This involves organizing the information in a way that is accessible for later use.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed aids in resolving problems and making decisions based on past experiences.

Retrieval Cues

Successful retrieval often relies on cues, which are stimuli that help access the stored information.

Influencing Factors to Retrieval

• Cues: Semantic (related to meaning) or contextual cues (related to the situation of learning) can enhance retrieval.

• Emotional States: The emotional state at the time of retrieval can influence access, as certain emotions can trigger specific memories.

• Neural Connections: Frequent retrieval of information strengthens the neural pathways associated with that memory, making future retrieval easier.

Types of Memory

• Sensory Memory

• Short-term Memory

• Long-term Memory

• Working Memory

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information helps in quick evaluations.

Short-term Memory

Limited capacity for holding and manipulating information aids in immediate problem-solving.

Long-term Memory

Permanent storage of knowledge informs decisions and judgments based on previous learning. It is often categorized into explicit and implicit memory.

Explicit Memory (Declarative)

Facts and experiences that one can consciously recall.

Implicit Memory (Non-declarative)

Skills and conditioned responses that are performed without conscious thought.

Working Memory

A crucial tool that allows individuals to hold and manipulate information temporarily, aiding in problem-solving by maintaining essential data at hand.

Cognitive Biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment can influence decision-making significantly.

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms existing preconceptions can lead to flawed judgments.

Functional Fixedness

Limits problem-solving by constraining individuals to think of objects only in their conventional roles.

Theories of Forgetting

Understanding memory retention and retrieval (such as Decay Theory and Interference Theory) is essential in recognizing how forgetting can impact problem-solving and decision-making capabilities.

Decay Theory

Suggests that memories fade over time if they are not accessed.

Interference Theory

Proposes that other information can disrupt the retrieval of memories, which can be proactive (old information affects new) or retroactive (new information affects old).

Forgetting Curve

A graph that depicts the decline of memory retention over time, illustrating how information can be lost if not reinforced in memory.

Schema

Mental frameworks for organizing information.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions.