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Transcription
The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
Eukaryotic
Organisms whose cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Noncoding RNAs
RNA molecules that do not code for proteins but play multiple roles in controlling gene expression.
Multicellular organism
An organism composed of multiple cells that have different functions and specialized roles.
Cancer
A disease caused by genetic changes that affect cell cycle control, leading to uncontrolled cell growth.
Enzyme
A protein that catalyzes specific chemical reactions in the cell.
Promoter
A site on DNA where RNA polymerase can bind to initiate transcription.
mRNA
Messenger RNA, a type of RNA molecule that carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
Polypeptide
A chain of amino acids that makes up a protein.
Operator
A segment of DNA that controls the access of RNA polymerase to the genes it regulates.
Metabolic pathway
A series of chemical reactions that convert a starting molecule into a final product.
Tryptophan
An amino acid that is synthesized by cells and is essential for their survival.
Feedback inhibition
A regulatory mechanism in which the end product of a pathway inhibits the activity of an enzyme involved in its synthesis.
Operon
A group of genes that are transcribed together and regulated by a single promoter and operator.
Regulatory gene
A gene that encodes a protein that controls the expression of other genes.
Allosteric protein
A protein that can change its shape and activity in response to binding of a small molecule.
Corepressor
A small molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to switch off an operon.
Tryptophan
An amino acid that acts as a corepressor in the trp operon, regulating its expression.
Transcription
The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
Genes
Segments of DNA that contain the instructions for making proteins.
Enzymes
Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions in cells.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries the genetic information in cells.
mRNA
Messenger RNA, the RNA molecule that carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.
Repressor
A protein that binds to the operator region of an operon and prevents transcription of the structural genes.
cAMP
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a small organic molecule that accumulates when glucose is scarce and acts as a signaling molecule in gene regulation.
CRP
cAMP receptor protein, an activator protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a gene when cAMP is bound to it.
Lac Operon
An operon in E. coli that controls the expression of genes involved in lactose metabolism.
Glucose
A simple sugar that is the preferred energy source for E. coli. Its presence affects the regulation of the lac operon.
Allolactose
A small organic molecule that binds to the lac repressor and prevents it from binding to the operator, allowing transcription of the lac operon.
Positive Regulation
Gene regulation that occurs when a regulatory protein interacts directly with the genome to switch transcription on.
Negative Control
Gene regulation that occurs when a regulatory protein switches off transcription by binding to the operator region.
RNA Polymerase
An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription.
Promoter
A region of DNA that initiates transcription by providing a binding site for RNA polymerase.
Transcription
The process by which genetic information from DNA is copied into RNA.
Enzymes
Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions in cells.
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Repressor
A protein that binds to DNA and prevents transcription of a specific gene or set of genes.
Lac operon
A group of genes in bacteria that are involved in the metabolism of lactose.
RNA polymerase
An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription.
Differential gene expression
The process by which different genes are expressed in different cell types or at different times.
Transcription factors
Proteins that bind to DNA and regulate the transcription of genes.
Chromatin
The complex of DNA and proteins that make up chromosomes.
Histone modifications
Chemical modifications to histone proteins that can affect gene expression.
DNA methylation
The addition of a methyl group to DNA, which can affect gene expression.
Control point
A stage in gene expression where regulation can occur, such as transcription or translation.
Chromatin structure
The organization and packaging of DNA and proteins in the nucleus.
Nucleosome
The basic unit of chromatin, consisting of DNA wrapped around histone proteins.
DNA methylation
Alterations in normal patterns of DNA methylation are seen in some cancers, where they are associated with inappropriate gene expression. Methylation patterns are passed on to daughter cells and can be reversed during gamete formation.
Chromatin-modifying enzymes
Enzymes that modify chromatin structure are integral parts of the eukaryotic cell's machinery for regulating transcription. They provide initial control of gene expression by making a region of DNA either more or less able to bind the transcription machinery.
Transcription initiation
The initiation of transcription is the next major step at which gene expression is regulated. Proteins that bind to DNA in eukaryotes either facilitate or inhibit binding of RNA polymerase, similar to bacteria.
Eukaryotic gene organization
A typical eukaryotic gene and its DNA elements (segments) are organized with a promoter sequence where a transcription initiation complex assembles. It also includes coding segments, untranslated regions (UTRs), introns, exons, and a poly-A tail.
Epigenetic inheritance
The chromatin modifications that do not change the DNA sequence but can be passed along to future generations of cells are called epigenetic inheritance. Epigenetic variations play a role in the regulation of gene expression and may explain differences in genetically identical individuals.
RNA polymerase II
An enzyme that transcribes genes by synthesizing a primary RNA transcript (pre-mRNA).
Pre-mRNA
The primary RNA transcript synthesized by RNA polymerase II, which undergoes RNA processing to become mature mRNA.
Control elements
Segments of noncoding DNA that serve as binding sites for transcription factors and regulate gene expression.
Transcription factors
Proteins that bind to control elements on DNA and regulate transcription.
General transcription factors
Proteins that are essential for the transcription of all protein-coding genes and bind to the promoter.
Specific transcription factors
Proteins that bind to control elements close to or farther away from the promoter and are required for the transcription of specific genes.
Enhancers
Control elements located thousands of nucleotides upstream or downstream of a gene, which can strongly increase or decrease the rate of gene expression.
Activators
Specific transcription factors that bind to enhancers and enhance transcription of a given gene.
Repressors
Specific transcription factors that bind to enhancers and inhibit gene expression.
Chromatin modification
The recruitment of proteins that acetylate or remove acetyl groups from histones, leading to either enhanced or reduced transcription, respectively.
Combinatorial control
The precise control of transcription that depends on the binding of multiple activators to DNA control elements.
Transcription initiation complex
The assembly of general transcription factors, mediator proteins, and RNA polymerase II on the promoter, which leads to the initiation of RNA synthesis.
Regulation of Gene Expression
The process by which a gene is turned on or off, resulting in the production or inhibition of a specific protein.
Control elements
DNA sequences that regulate the transcription of a gene by binding to specific transcription factors.
Transcription factors
Proteins that bind to control elements and regulate the initiation of transcription.
Enhancer
A DNA sequence that can increase the transcription of a gene when bound by specific activator proteins.
Activator proteins
Proteins that bind to enhancers and increase the transcription of a gene.
Promoter
A DNA sequence that initiates the transcription of a gene.
Reporter gene
A gene whose mRNA product can be easily measured experimentally to determine the level of gene expression.
Independent variable
The variable that is deliberately changed or manipulated in an experiment.
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment and is affected by the independent variable.
Control treatment
The treatment in an experiment that serves as a baseline or reference point and does not receive any experimental manipulation.
Biological explanation
A scientific explanation that relates to the functioning and processes of living organisms.
Steroid hormone
A hormone that can enter a cell and bind to a specific intracellular receptor protein, forming a hormone-receptor complex that serves as a transcription activator.
Signal transduction pathway
A series of molecular events that transmit a signal from the cell surface to the nucleus, resulting in changes in gene expression.
Coordinate regulation
The activation of genes with the same sets of control elements by the same chemical signals.
Nuclear architecture
The organization and spatial arrangement of chromosomes within the nucleus.
Operon
A cluster of coordinately controlled genes in bacteria that are regulated by a single promoter and transcribed into a single mRNA molecule.
Transcription factor
A protein that binds to specific control elements in DNA and regulates the transcription of genes.
Enhancer
A DNA sequence that can increase the transcription of a gene when bound by specific transcription factors.
Post-transcriptional regulation
Mechanisms that operate after transcription to regulate gene expression, such as RNA processing and mRNA degradation.
Alternative RNA splicing
A process in which different mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript by including or excluding different RNA segments.
Chromatin loop
Loops of chromatin that extend from individual chromosomal territories into specific sites in the nucleus, where transcription factories are located.
Nucleotide sequences
Sequences of nucleotides that make up DNA or RNA molecules.
mRNA
Messenger RNA, a type of RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.
Untranslated region
The region of an mRNA molecule that does not code for protein and is not translated into amino acids.
3' end
The end of an mRNA molecule where nucleotides are added during transcription.
Short-lived mRNA
mRNA molecules that have a short lifespan and are quickly degraded.
Growth factor
A substance that stimulates cell growth and division.
Globin mRNA
mRNA that codes for globin proteins, which are components of hemoglobin.
RNA molecules
Molecules made up of nucleotides that play various roles in gene expression and regulation.
Protein processing
The modification and maturation of polypeptides into functional protein molecules.
Protein degradation
The breakdown and removal of proteins from the cell.
Insulin polypeptide
A polypeptide that is processed to form the active hormone insulin.
Chemical modifications
Changes made to proteins through the addition or removal of chemical groups.
Regulatory proteins
Proteins that control the activity of other proteins or genes.
Phosphate groups
Chemical groups consisting of phosphorus and oxygen that can be added or removed from proteins to regulate their activity.
Ubiquitin
A small protein that marks other proteins for degradation.
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