Globalisation, green crime, human rights & state crime

What is globalisation?

Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness of societies.

What are a few of the causes of globalisation?

• The spread of new info and communication technologies

• The influence of global mass media

• Deregulation of financial and other markets and their opening up to competition

• Easier movement so businesses can easily relocate to countries with greater profits

Who suggests there has been a globalisation of crime?

Held et al - globalisation of crime (increasing interconnectedness of crime across national borders.

The globalisation of crime has brought about the spread of what crime?

The globalisation of crime has brought about the spread of transnational organised crime

According to Castells, what is the global criminal economy worth?

Castells - the global criminal economy is worth over £1 trillion per annum

What are 5 examples of transnational organised crime?

• Sex tourism - Westerners travel to LIDCs for sex, sometimes involving minors

• Money laundering of the profits of organised crime, $1.4 trillion per year

• Trafficking in endangered species or their body parts, e.g. to produce traditional remedies

• Drugs trade - worth an estimated $300-400 billion

• Trafficking in body parts for organ transplants in rich countries - estimated 2000 organs annually taken from condemned or executed criminals in China

Where is the demand located in the global criminal economy?

In the global criminal economy, the demand for its products and services is located in the rich West.

Where is the supply located in the global criminal economy and what is it linked to?

The supply is found in Third World countries, especially in drugs-producing countries such as Colombia, Peru and Afghanistan, who have large populations of impoverished peasants, who find drug cultivation attractive that commands high prices compared with traditional crops.

Explain Colombia’s involvement in the global drug trade?

In Colombia, an estimated 20% of the population depends on cocaine production for their livelihood, and cocaine outsells all Colombia’s other exports combined.

What new mentality has globalisation created?

Globalisation has produced a new mentality of “risk consciousness” in which risk is seen as global rather than tied to particular places.

What is an example of globalisation causes risk consciousness?

Risk consciousness can be demonstrated by the increased movement of people in the form of economic migrants or asylum seekers fleeing persecution, which has given rise to anxieties among populations in Western countries about the risks of crime and disorder and the need to protect their borders.

Where does much knowledge about risks come from and what is the impact of this?

Much of our knowledge about risks come from the media, which often give an exaggerated view of the dangers we face - e.g. with immigration, the media creates moral panics about its “threat”, portraying them as terrorists or scroungers “flooding” the country.

How has the globalised risk of immigration impacted social control in the UK and Europe?

Due to the perceived risk of immigration, the UK has toughened its border control regulations, e.g. fining airlines if they bring in undocumented passengers and having NO legal limits on how long a person may be held in immigration detention.

Other European states have introduced fences, CCTV and thermal imaging devices to prevent illegal crossings

Other than increased social control, what is another result of globalised risk?

Another result of globalised risk is the increased attempts at international cooperation and control in the various “wars” on terror, drugs and crime - particularly since 9/11

Who links globalisation, capitalism and crime?

Ian Taylor links globalisation, capitalism and crime.

What has globalisation increased according to Ian Taylor and how?

Taylor argues that by giving free rein to market forces, globalisation has created greater inequality and rising crime

What has globalisation allowed TNCs to do according to Taylor? What has this produced?

Taylor highlights how globalisation has allowed transnational corporations to switch manufacturing to low wage countries - this has produced job insecurity, unemployment and poverty.

How has deregulation had an impact on governments according to Taylor?

Taylor highlights how deregulation means that governments have little control over their own economies, for example to create jobs or raise taxes, which means state spending on welfare has declined.

What has the impact of marketisation been on the individual according to Taylor?

Taylor highlights how marketisation has encouraged people to see themselves as individual consumers, calculating the personal costs and benefits of each action, undermining social cohesion.

What is an impact of the global media according to left realists?

Left realists argue that the global media has promoted an increasingly materialistic culture which portrays success in terms of a lifestyle of consumption

How has the insecurity and widening inequalities caused by globalisation encouraged crime amongst the poor?

Insecurity and widening inequalities caused by globalisation has encouraged people, especially the poor, to turn to crime - the lack of legitimate job opportunities destroys self-respect and drives the unemployed to look for illegitimate ones, for instance in the lucrative drugs trade.

What is an example of widening inequalities encouraging crime in America?

In Los Angeles, de-industrialisation has led to the growth of drugs gangs numbering 10,000 members.

According to Taylor, how has globalisation increased elite crime? 2 examples?

Taylor highlights how globalisation has created criminal opportunities on a grand scale for elite groups - e.g. the deregulating of financial markets has created opportunities for insider trading and the movement of funds around the globe to avoid taxation, and the creation of transnational bodies such as the EU has offered opportunities for fraudulent claims for government expenditure.

How has globalisation changed patterns of employment according to Taylor an how does this lead to crime?

Globalisation has lead to the increased use of subcontracting (bringing in an outside company or individual to perform specific parts of a business contract) to recruit “flexible” workers, often working illegally or employed for less than the minimum wage or working in breach of health and safety laws.

What does Ian Taylor’s theory of crime not adequately explain?

Taylor’s theory linking globalisation, capitalism and crime does not adequately explain how the changes make people behave in criminal ways - not all poor people turn to crime

Who examines the role of international financial organisations in “crime of globalisation”?

Rothe and Friedrichs - role of international financial organisations (like IMF and World Bank) in “crimes of globalisation”.

What are international financial organisations dominated by according to Rothe and Friedrichs? What is evidence of this?

Rothe and Friedrichs argue that international financial organisations are dominated by the major capitalist states - e.g. the World Bank has 188 member countries, yet only 5, the USA, Japan, Germany, Britain and France, hold over a third of the voting rights.

What do international financial organisations impose according to Rothe and Friedrichs? What do these require?

Rothe and Friedrichs argue that these international financial bodies impose pro-capitalist, neoliberal economic “structural adjustment programmes” on poor countries as a condition for the loans they provide.

These often require governments to cut spending on health and education, and to privatise publicly-owned services, industries and natural resources.

This creates the conditions for crime.

What is an example of imposed economic programmes leading to crime and which sociologist?

Rothe et al show how the programme imposed on Rwanda in the 80s caused mass unemployment and created the economic basis for the 1994 genocide.

Maureen Cain suggests that the IMF and World Bank act as a ________? How does this link to crime?

Cain - the IMF and World Bank act as a “global state” and while they may not break any laws, their actions can cause widespread social harms both directly, through cutting welfare spending, and indirectly, as in the Rwandan case.

Who found that the way crime is organised is linked to the economic changes brought by globalisation?

Hobbs and Dunningham - the way crime is organised is linked to the economic changes brought by globalisation.

How do individuals act in organised crime these days according to Hobbs and Dunningham?

Hobbs and Dunningham argue that increasingly crime is involving individuals with contacts acting as a “hub” around which a loose-knit network forms, composed of other individuals seeking opportunities, often linking legitimate and illegitimate activities.

What does current criminal organisations contrast with according to Hobbs and Dunningham?

Hobbs and Dunningham found that the loose knit network of criminal organisations contrasts with the large-scale, hierarchical “Mafia” style criminal organisations of the past, such as that headed by the Kray brothers in the East End of London.

What are examples of new criminal organisations having international links? Does this override local links?

These new forms of organisation sometimes have international links, especially with the drugs trade HOWEVER, individuals still need local contacts and networks to find opportunities and to sell their drugs.

Hobbs and Dunningham conclude that crime works as a “_______” system. What does this mean?

Hobbs and Dunningham - crime works as a “glocal” system - it is locally based, but with global connections, which means the form it takes varies from place to place according to local conditions.

Overall, how has globalisation changed patterns of crime according to Hobbes and Dunningham?

Hobbes and Dunningham conclude that changes associated with globalisation have led to shift from the old rigidly hierarchical gang structure to loose networks of flexible, opportunistic, entrepreneurial criminals.

What is a weakness of Hobbs and Dunningham’s claim that there has been a shift to loose networks of criminals?

It is not clear that such patterns are new, nor that the older structures have disappeared - it may be that the two have always co-existed.

What example did Misha Glenny put forward of the relationship between crime and globalisation?

Glenny - “McMafia”.

What is Glenny’s theory of “McMafia”?

Glenny - McMafia refers to the organisations that emerged in Russia and Eastern Europe following the fall of communism - itself a major factor in the process of globalisation.

How did the break up of the Soviet Union coincide with the deregulation of global markets according to Glenny?

Glenny highlights how under communism, the Soviet state has regulated the prices of everything. However, following the fall of communism, the Russian government deregulated most sectors of the economy except for natural resources - these remained at their old Soviet prices - 1/40 of the world price.

What did Russia’s natural resources remaining at their old Soviet prices lead to?

Russia’s natural resources remaining at a small price led to anyone with access to funds, such as former communist officials buying up oil, gas, diamonds or metals for next to nothing. They could then sell these abroad at an astronomical profit, and became Russia’s new capitalist class - “oligarchs”.

Why did the oligarchs need to protect their wealth and how did they do this?

The collapse of the communist state heralded a period of increasing disorder - to protect their wealth the oligarchs turned to the “mafias” that had begun to spring up - these were often alliances between former KGB (secret services) men and ex-convicts.

These mafias meant the billionaires were able to find protection for their wealth as a means of moving out of the country and also enter the world economy.

Were the mafias formed from the fall of communism similar to Italian and American counterparts?

The mafias formed after the fall of communism were unlike the old Italian and American mafias, which were based on ethnic and family ties with a clear-cut hierarchy - the new Russian mafias were purely economic organisations formed to pursue their self interest.

What is an example of a post-communism Russian mafia?

The Chechen mafia originally operated in Chechnya, but soon began to “franchise” its operations to non-Chechen groups - they sold the brand name of “Chechen mafia” to protection rackets in other towns, so long as they always carried out their word.

What is green crime?

Green or environmental crime can be defined as crime against the environment.

How does green crime have a global nature?

As the planet is a single eco-system, threats are increasingly global - e.g. atmospheric pollution from industry in one country can turn into acid rain that falls in another, poisoning its watercourses and destroying its forests.

What sociologist argues that there are new “manufactured risks” and how have these come about?

Beck argues that there are now “manufactured risks” - dangers caused by the massive increase in productivity and the technology that sustains it.

What do these “manufactured risks” involve according to Beck?

Beck argues that many of these manufactured risks involve harm to the environment and its consequences for humanity, such as global warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions. These risks are also often global rather than local.

What does Beck describe late modern society as?

Beck describes late modern society as “global risk society”.

What is an example of how human made risk can produce crime and disorder on a global scale?

Mozambique in 2010 - global human made risk causing crime and disorder.

What event caused the 2010 crisis in Mozambique?

In Russia, where global warming triggered the hottest heatwave in a century, wildfires destroyed part of the country’s grain belt - the resulting shortage led Russia to introduce export bans and pushed up the world price of grain.

How did Russia pushing up the world price of grain lead to crime in Mozambique?

The rise in grain had a knock on effect in Mozambique, which is heavily dependent on food imports, and experienced a 30% rise in the price of bread. This sparked rioting and looting of food stores that left at least a dozen dead.

Mozambique’s own harvest had also been hit by drought, possibly a result of global warming.

What are the two viewpoints towards whether “green crime” is a matter for sociologists?

• Traditional criminology

• Green criminology

What is traditional criminology’s approach towards green crime?

Traditional criminology is not concerned with green crime that does not break the law, since its subject matter is defined by the criminal law, and no law has been broken

What is the starting point for traditional criminology when looking at green crime?

The starting point for traditional criminology is the national and international laws and regulations concerning the environment.

What is an example for a traditional criminology definition of green crime?

Traditional sociologists Situ and Emmons define environmental crime as “an unauthorised act or omission that violates the law”.

What is an advantage + disadvantage of the traditional criminology approach to green crime?

The advantage of the trad criminology approach is that it has a clearly defined subject matter, however, it is criticised for accepting official definitions of environmental crimes, which are often shaped by powerful groups to serve their own interests.

What is the starting point of green criminology?

Green criminology starts from the notion of harm rather than criminal law.

What is the proper subject of criminology according to Rob White?

Rob White argues that the proper subject of criminology is any action that harms the physical environment and/or the human and non-human animals within it, even if no law has been broken.

Green criminology is a form of ____________ criminology.

Green criminology is a form of transgressive criminology - it oversteps the boundaries of traditional criminology to include new issues.

Why is the subject matter of green criminology much wider than trad?

The subject of green criminology is much wider than traditional because many of the worst environmental harms are NOT illegal.

What is zemiology?

Zemiology is the study of harms

Why do green criminologists believe legal definitions cannot define harm?

Green criminologists highlight how different countries have different laws, so that the same harmful action may be a crime in one country but not in another - legal definitions cannot provide a consistent standard of harm, since they are the product of individual nation states and their political processes.

What type of perspective can green criminology develop by moving away from a legal definition?

By moving away from a legal definition, green criminology can develop a global perspective on environmental harm.

How is green criminology similar to the Marxist approach of “crimes of the powerful”?

Like Marxists, green criminologists argue that powerful interests, especially nation-states and TNCs, are able to define in their own interests what counts as unacceptable environmental harm.

What view of environmental harm do nation states and TNCs adopt according to White?

White argues that nation states and TNCs adopt an anthropocentric or human-centred view of environmental harm - this view assumes that humans have a right to dominate nature for their own ends, and puts economic growth before the environment.

What is an ecocentric view of environmental harm according to White?

White defines an ecocentric view as a perspective that sees humans and their environments as interdependent, so that environmental harm hurts humans also - both humans and the environment are liable to exploitation, particularly by global capitalism.

Who classifies green crimes into two types and what are these?

Nigel South classifies green crimes into two types: primary and secondary.

What are primary green crimes + 4 examples?

South defines primary green crimes as “crimes that result directly from the destruction and degradation of the earth’s resources”.

4 main types include: crimes of air pollution, deforestation, species decline and animal abuse, and water pollution.

What are some stats that highlight crimes of air pollution?

Crimes of air pollution:

• Burning fossil fuels from industry and transport adds 6 billion tons of carbon to the atmosphere every year.

• Potential criminals are governments, businesses and consumers

• Walters - 2x as many people now die from air pollution-induced breathing problems as 20 years ago.

What are some stats that highlight crimes of deforestation?

Crimes of deforestation:

• Between 1960 and 1990, one fifth of the world’s tropical rainforest was destroyed.

• In the Andes, the “war on drugs” has led to pesticide spraying to kill coca and marijuana plants, but this has destroyed food crops, contaminated drinking water and causing illness.

• Criminals include the state and those who profit from this, such as logging companies and cattle ranchers.

What are some stats that highlight crimes of species decline and animal abuse?

Crimes of species decline and animal abuse:

• 50 species a day are becoming extinct

• There is trafficking in animals and animal parts

• Old crimes such as dog fights and badger baiting are on the increase

What are some stats that highlight crimes of water pollution?

Crimes of water pollution:

• Half a billion people lack access to clean drinking water

• Marine pollution

• Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused massive harm to marine life and coasts

• Criminals include businesses that dump toxic waste and governments that discharge untreated sewage into rivers and seas.

What is secondary green crime?

Secondary green crime is crime that grows out of the flouting of rules aimed at preventing or regulating environmental disasters - e.g. when governments break their own regulations.

What are two examples of secondary crimes according to South?

South: two types of secondary crimes include state violence against oppositional groups and hazardous waste and organised crime

What is an example of state violence against oppositional groups?

In 1985, the French secret service blew up a Greenpeace ship in Auckland harbour, killing one crew member - the ship was there in an attempt to prevent a green crime, namely French nuclear weapons testing in the south Pacific.

What does Day state about state violence and opposition in terms of nuclear energy?

Day states that “in every case where a government has committed itself to nuclear weapons or nuclear power, all those who oppose this policy are treated in some degree as enemies of the state”.

Why may businesses turn to illegal disposal of waste? Example?

Because of the high costs of safe and legal disposal, businesses may seek to dispose of such waste illegally - in Italy, eco mafias profit from illegal dumping, much of it at sea.

Who states that “the ocean floor has been a radioactive rubbish dump for decades”?

Reece Walters.

What sociologist demonstrates the globalised character of illegal dumping?

Fred Bridgland highlights the globalised nature of illegal dumping - he describes how, after the tsunami of 2004, hundreds of barrels of radioactive waste, illegally dumped by European companies, washed up on the shores of Somalia.

What may Western businesses do with their waste as an alternative to outright illegally disposing it? Sociologist?

Western businesses may ship their waste to be processed in LIDCs where costs are lower and safety standards often non existent - Rosoff - the cost of legitimately disposing of toxic waste in the USA is about $2500 a ton, but some LIDCs will dispose of it for $3 a ton.

How does illegal waste disposal illustrate the problems of law enforcement in a globalised world?

The very existence of laws ro regulate waste disposal in developed countries pushes up the costs to business and creates an incentive to dump illegally in LIDCs - in some cases, it is not even illegal, since less developed countries may lack the necessary legislation outlawing.

What is environmental discrimination and who coined it?

Environmental discrimination, as coined by South, describes how pooer groups are worse affected by pollution - e.g. black communities in the USA often find their housing situated next to garbage dumps or polluting industries.

What are the drawbacks of green criminology?

By focusing on the much broader concept of harms rather than simply on legally defined crimes, it is hard to define the boundaries of green criminology clearly - defining these involves making moral or political statement that are a matter of values and cannot be established objectively.

How do Green and Ward define state crime?

Green and Ward - state crime is “illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by, or with the complicity of, state agencies” - it includes all forms of crime committed by or on behalf of states and governments in order to further their policies.

True or false? State crimes include acts that benefit individuals who work for the state, such as a police officer who accepts a bribe.

FALSE - state crimes do NOT include acts that merely benefit individuals who work for the state.

What are the two reasons why state crime is perhaps the most serious form of crime?

1. The scale of state crime

2. The state is the source of law

How many people were murdered by governments during the 1900s according to Green and Ward?

Green and Ward - 262 million people murdered by governments during 1900s.

Who states that “great power and great crimes are inseparable”?

Michalowski and Kramer - “great power and great crimes are inseparable”

How can the state use its power for criminal means?

The state’s role is to define what is criminal, uphold the law and prosecute offenders - however, this can be used to uphold its interests by concealing its crimes, evading punishment and even avoid defining its own actions as criminal in the first place.

Why can’t external authorities intervene in state crime?

All states, including democracies, have been guilty of crimes, but the principle of national sovereignty makes it difficult for external authorities such as the UN to intervene.

Who identifies 4 categories of state crime?

McLaughlin - 4 categories of state crime.

What are the 4 categories of state crime as identified by McLaughlin?

4 categories of state crime:

1. Political crimes e.g. corruption and censorship

2. Crimes by security and police forces e.g. genocide, torture

3. Economic crimes e.g. official violations of health and safety laws

4. Social and cultural crimes e.g. institutional racism

How does the UN define genocide?

The UN defines genocide as “acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group”

What country was the scene of the “20th century’s fastest genocide”?

Rwanda in 1994 - genocide

What impact did Belgian colonials have on Rwanda in 1922?

Rwanda became a Belgian colony in 1922 and the Belgians used the minority Tutsi to mediate their role over the Hutu majority - they were NOT separate ethnic groups. they were more like social classes (Tutsis owned livestock, Hutus did not).

The Belgians “ethnicised” the two groups, issuing them with racial identity cards and educated the two groups separately.

What happens when Rwanda gained independence in 1962?

Rwanda gained independence in 1962 and elections brought the Hutus to power - by the 90s, escalating economic and political crisis led to civil war, with Hutu hardliners attempting to cling onto power by fuelling race hate propaganda against the Tutsis.

What event triggered the genocide in Rwanda and what did the genocide consist of?

The shooting down of the Hutu president’s plane in 1994 triggered the genocide - in 100 days, 800,000 Tutsis (along with moderate Hutus) were slaughtered, legitimated with dehumanising labels like “cockroaches” and “rats”.

Initially the killing was done by Hutu militia, later, many Hutu civilians were forced to join the killing or be killed themselves - 1/3 of the Hutu population actively participated.

What crimes are state crimes often committed in conjunction with?

State crimes are often committed in conjunction with corporate crimes.

What corporate crimes do Kramer and Michalowski distinguish between?

Kramer and Michalowski distinguish between “state-initiated” and “state-facilitated” corporate crime.