Comparative Media

Media Systems

These are part of a grand design adopted by society for the attainment of goals.

Authoritarian Media System

The assumption of this political system is that individuals can only attain their potentials in an organized society, and an organized society finds its highest expression in the state. Furthermore, the state must be run by wise men, the greatest individuals, and the ultimate authority to decide for the common good.

Roles of Media in Authoritarian Systems

Media in an authoritarian society are assigned definite roles in tandem with desirable goals envisaged for such a society. These roles include: Dissemination of information, ideas, and attitudes of the ruling group.

Media Ownership in Authoritarian Systems

Media are monopolized by the government. Private ownership, if any, goes to a selected few who are trusted by the government to not stray away from the principle of the state policy.

Historical Practice of Authoritarianism

The authoritarian system was practiced by most governments in Europe from the 16th to 18th century by Britain, Spain, Germany, France, and some colonial governments in America.

Forms of Media Control in Authoritarian Systems

Media control in the authoritarian system takes the following forms: Legislation, Economic function, Taxation, Direct appointment of editorial staff, and Sanctions.

Legislative Control under Authoritarianism

Legislative measures provide conditions which scare the private media in the form of patents to printers (publishing without a license is illegal), taxes on knowledge (which reduce circulation of newspapers and force publishers out of business), and laws of libel and sedition. The taxes include stamp duties and advertising tax.

Example of Authoritarian Control: Nigeria (1903)

Some of these laws were exported to Nigeria. A law from 1903, through the newspaper proclamation of 1903, was introduced in the protectorate of southern Nigeria. The proclamation aimed to control the registration, printing, and publishing in the protectorate.

Libertarian System

This system admits that the state is a necessary evil. It does not accept that the state is the highest expression of human organization. It states that man is a rational being capable of thinking and reaching decisions while still advancing his interests, and should be allowed considerable degrees of latitude to develop his interest.

Proponents of the Libertarian System

The proponents of the Libertarian System include Locke, Tailton, and Jefferson.

Role of Media in Libertarian System

The implication of this system is that the media must be left alone to constitute a free marketplace for diverse opinions. Rather than the government checking the media, the media should check the government by providing information on the basis that society can decide whether to accept or reject that particular government.

Self-Correction in Libertarian Media

It is seen as the arbitrary way of curbing substandard goods, meaning media that trade on falsehood will disappear; only those who give acceptable services will survive.

Ownership and Control in Libertarian Media

Media ownership in this system is open to everybody, but evidently only a few can afford it because of the heavily capital investment involved. What is considered a check on the media is competition or economic terminology.

Broadcasting Challenges in Libertarian System

The challenge of broadcasting in this system is the scarce item - airwaves. The state intervened by monopolizing airwaves and allocating them as they wish. The existing conflict, therefore, is between individual rights to own broadcasting stations and state monopoly of airwaves.

Broadcasting Regulation in Libertarian Nations

In America and Britain, broadcasting is regulated by the FCC and board of governors and independent broadcasting authorities, respectively.

Social Responsibility Theory (SRT)

The emergence of SRT in America in 1940 sought to address the contradictions of the libertarian system: (1) When higher technology investments are made, the press becomes more commercially inclined. (2) The ever-increasing cost of investment in the press equally means fewer people will contemplate the venture, which resulted in concentration of press ownership in the hands of the few rich and limited access to the press by the public. (3) Fear of a total extinction of alternative views was the bone of contention in the libertarian system.

Tenets of Social Responsibility Theory

SRT posited that: The media should act responsibly by realizing that they have obligations to fulfill to the public. They should act as a stage where diverse interests compete. Ownership should not impede access to media, but the government should intervene by placing a subsidy on the press to produce their paper.

Soviet Communist Theory

In this system, ownership of the factors of production as belonging to the government is seized. No individual owns anything but the working class, to ensure peace and unity. The party directs the affairs of men and institutions.

Tenets of Soviet Communist Theory

The media should serve the interest of the state, represented by the ruling party or the working class. There should be no private ownership of the media. The media should perform the functions of socializing, education, information, motivation, and above all, mobilization with desired norms. The media should respond to the wishes and needs of the audience insofar as some communist society will not go against the wisdom of the ruling party. The party, through its central committee, oversees and charges the media for derailing and going anti-social in publication. The media should support the Marxist-Leninist principles, the objective view of society, and support progressive movements. The Communist Party is not a construct of the 21st century, but it is still practiced.

Developmental Media System of Development

It came as the follow-up of the four theories popularized by Sibert et al. In the view of many, it came as a child of circumstance. McQuail linked it to the developing nations and their needs.

Origin of Developmental Media System

After independence, many third-world countries had an urgent need for development, and independent journalists who saw themselves as key players in national development insisted that concerted effort and peace were critical to development.

McQuail's Principles (1983) for Developmental Media System

McQuail postulated these principles in 1983: The media should accept and carry out positive development tasks in line with national policies. The media should give priority in their content to national culture and language. The media should be open to restrictions that will make them comply with economic priorities and development needs of the society. Links with other developing nations which are in close proximity, geographically, culturally, or politically, should be prioritized. The freedom of media workers in information gathering and dissemination goes with responsibility. The state has a right to intervene in or restrict media operations by means of censorship or in any other control form in the interest of development ends. The fundamental factor of this theory is that media should support national development, political autonomy, and cultural identity.

Democratic Participant Media System

Dennis McQuail postulated this theory. It is dedicated to the need for horizontal rather than vertical communication in society. It became obvious that top-down communication was not effective in endangering sustainable development. Thus, it was necessary to create a system that will involve the citizenry, who are beneficiaries of the development program, in communication design, plan, execution, and implementation.

Reasons for the Emergence of Democratic Participant Media System

This theory came as a result of reaction against commercialization and monopolization by private investors and the centralization and bureaucracy of public-owned media.

Principles of Democratic Participant Media

The media under this theory should recognize the following: Individual and minority groups have a right to access media and the right to be served by the media according to the people’s needs. Their organization and content should not be subject to centralized political or bureaucratic control. The media should exist primarily for their audience. Groups, organizations, and local communities should own and manage their local media. Small-scale media are better than large-scale media. Needs relating to mass media are neither adequately expressed through individual consumer demands nor through the state or major institutions.

The Revolutionary Media System

When media are used to mobilize the citizenry against some unpopular regime or policies, they are said to be operating under revolutionary doctrines. Revolution has always been adopted by man in an attempt to better his life. It occurs when people see the need to expose leadership.

Characteristics of Revolutionary Media

The major characteristics of this media, according to Stephenson (1994), include: The media operate illegally. They have just one aim, and that is to overthrow the government. They ignore existing media laws in the country. They cease to exist or change in character upon completion of their task. They operate most times from hideouts, thus circumventing government control.

What are "Media Systems"?

These are part of a grand design adopted by society for the attainment of goals.

What is the core assumption of the Authoritarian Media System?

The assumption of this political system is that individuals can only attain their potentials in an organized society, and an organized society finds its highest expression in the state. Furthermore, the state must be run by wise men, the greatest individuals, and the ultimate authority to decide for the common good.

What is the role of media in Authoritarian Systems?

Media in an authoritarian society are assigned definite roles in tandem with desirable goals envisaged for such a society. These roles include: Dissemination of information, ideas, and attitudes of the ruling group.

How is media ownership structured in Authoritarian Systems?

Media are monopolized by the government. Private ownership, if any, goes to a selected few who are trusted by the government to not stray away from the principle of the state policy.

Where and when was the Authoritarian Media System historically practiced?

The authoritarian system was practiced by most governments in Europe from the 16th to 18th century by Britain, Spain, Germany, France, and some colonial governments in America.

What forms of media control are used in Authoritarian Systems?

Media control in the authoritarian system takes the following forms: Legislation, Economic function, Taxation, Direct appointment of editorial staff, and Sanctions.

What are examples of legislative control under Authoritarianism?

Legislative measures provide conditions which scare the private media in the form of patents to printers (publishing without a license is illegal), taxes on knowledge (which reduce circulation of newspapers and force publishers out of business), and laws of libel and sedition. The taxes include stamp duties and advertising tax.

What was the Newspaper Proclamation of 1903 in Nigeria an example of?

A law from 1903, through the newspaper proclamation of 1903, was introduced in the protectorate of southern Nigeria. The proclamation aimed to control the registration, printing, and publishing in the protectorate.

What is the Libertarian System's view on the state and individuals?

This system admits that the state is a necessary evil. It does not accept that the state is the highest expression of human organization. It states that man is a rational being capable of thinking and reaching decisions while still advancing his interests, and should be allowed considerable degrees of latitude to develop his interest.

Who were the key proponents of the Libertarian System?

The proponents of the Libertarian System include Locke, Tailton, and Jefferson.

What is the primary role of media in a Libertarian System?

The implication of this system is that the media must be left alone to constitute a free marketplace for diverse opinions. Rather than the government checking the media, the media should check the government by providing information on the basis that society can decide whether to accept or reject that particular government.

How does "self-correction" function in Libertarian Media?

It is seen as the arbitrary way of curbing substandard goods, meaning media that trade on falsehood will disappear; only those who give acceptable services will survive.

Who owns media in a Libertarian System, and what acts as a check on them?

Media ownership in this system is open to everybody, but evidently only a few can afford it because of the heavily capital investment involved. What is considered a check on the media is competition or economic terminology.

What is the main challenge for broadcasting in the Libertarian System?

The challenge of broadcasting in this system is the scarce item - airwaves. The state intervened by monopolizing airwaves and allocating them as they wish. The existing conflict, therefore, is between individual rights to own broadcasting stations and state monopoly of airwaves.

How is broadcasting regulated in Libertarian nations like America and Britain?

In America and Britain, broadcasting is regulated by the FCC and board of governors and independent broadcasting authorities, respectively.

What were the reasons for the emergence of the Social Responsibility Theory (SRT)?

The emergence of SRT in America in 1940 sought to address the contradictions of the libertarian system: (1) When higher technology investments are made, the press becomes more commercially inclined. (2) The ever-increasing cost of investment in the press equally means fewer people will contemplate the venture, which resulted in concentration of press ownership in the hands of the few rich and limited access to the press by the public. (3) Fear of a total extinction of alternative views was the bone of contention in the libertarian system.

What are the key tenets of the Social Responsibility Theory?

SRT posited that: The media should act responsibly by realizing that they have obligations to fulfill to the public. They should act as a stage where diverse interests compete. Ownership should not impede access to media, but the government should intervene by placing a subsidy on the press to produce their paper.

What is the concept of ownership in the Soviet Communist Theory?

In this system, ownership of the factors of production as belonging to the government is seized. No individual owns anything but the working class, to ensure peace and unity. The party directs the affairs of men and institutions.

What are the tenets of the Soviet Communist Theory regarding media's role and ownership?

The media should serve the interest of the state, represented by the ruling party or the working class. There should be no private ownership of the media. The media should perform the functions of socializing, education, information, motivation, and above all, mobilization with desired norms. The media should respond to the wishes and needs of the audience insofar as some communist society will not go against the wisdom of the ruling party. The party, through its central committee, oversees and charges the media for derailing and going anti-social in publication. The media should support the Marxist-Leninist principles, the objective view of society, and support progressive movements. The Communist Party is not a construct of the 21st century, but it is still practiced.

What are the origins and focus of the Developmental Media System?

It came as the follow-up of the four theories popularized by Sibert et al. In the view of many, it came as a child of circumstance. McQuail linked it to the developing nations and their needs.

What was the context for the origin of the Developmental Media System?

After independence, many third-world countries had an urgent need for development, and independent journalists who saw themselves as key players in national development insisted that concerted effort and peace were critical to development.

What are McQuail's (1983) principles for the Developmental Media System?

McQuail postulated these principles in 1983: The media should accept and carry out positive development tasks in line with national policies. The media should give priority in their content to national culture and language. The media should be open to restrictions that will make them comply with economic priorities and development needs of the society. Links with other developing nations which are in close proximity, geographically, culturally, or politically, should be prioritized. The freedom of media workers in information gathering and dissemination goes with responsibility. The state has a right to intervene in or restrict media operations by means of censorship or in any other control form in the interest of development ends. The fundamental factor of this theory is that media should support national development, political autonomy, and cultural identity.

What is the core focus of the Democratic Participant Media System?

Dennis McQuail postulated this theory. It is dedicated to the need for horizontal rather than vertical communication in society. It became obvious that top-down communication was not effective in endangering sustainable development. Thus, it was necessary to create a system that will involve the citizenry, who are beneficiaries of the development program, in communication design, plan, execution, and implementation.

What were the reasons for the emergence of the Democratic Participant Media System?

This theory came as a result of reaction against commercialization and monopolization by private investors and the centralization and bureaucracy of public-owned media.

What are the principles of Democratic Participant Media?

The media under this theory should recognize the following: Individual and minority groups have a right to access media and the right to be served by the media according to the people’s needs. Their organization and content should not be subject to centralized political or bureaucratic control. The media should exist primarily for their audience. Groups, organizations, and local communities should own and manage their local media. Small-scale media are better than large-scale media. Needs relating to mass media are neither adequately expressed through individual consumer demands nor through the state or major institutions.

What defines the Revolutionary Media System?

When media are used to mobilize the citizenry against some unpopular regime or policies, they are said to be operating under revolutionary doctrines. Revolution has always been adopted by man in an attempt to better his life. It occurs when people see the need to expose leadership.

What are the key characteristics of Revolutionary Media according to Stephenson (199

The major characteristics of this media, according to Stephenson (1994), include: The media operate illegally. They have just one aim, and that is to overthrow the government. They ignore existing media laws in the country. They cease to exist or change in character upon completion of their task. They operate most times from hideouts, thus circumventing government control.

Media Systems

These are part of a grand design adopted by society for the attainment of goals.

Authoritarian Media System

The assumption of this political system is that individuals can only attain their potentials in an organized society, and an organized society finds its highest expression in the state. Furthermore, the state must be run by wise men, the greatest individuals, and the ultimate authority to decide for the common good.

Roles of Media in Authoritarian Systems

Media in an authoritarian society are assigned definite roles in tandem with desirable goals envisaged for such a society. These roles include: Dissemination of information, ideas, and attitudes of the ruling group.

Media Ownership in Authoritarian Systems

Media are monopolized by the government. Private ownership, if any, goes to a selected few who are trusted by the government to not stray away from the principle of the state policy.

Historical Practice of Authoritarianism

The authoritarian system was practiced by most governments in Europe from the 16th to 18th century by Britain, Spain, Germany, France, and some colonial governments in America.

Forms of Media Control in Authoritarian Systems

Media control in the authoritarian system takes the following forms: Legislation, Economic function, Taxation, Direct appointment of editorial staff, and Sanctions.

Legislative Control under Authoritarianism

Legislative measures provide conditions which scare the private media in the form of patents to printers (publishing without a license is illegal), taxes on knowledge (which reduce circulation of newspapers and force publishers out of business), and laws of libel and sedition. The taxes include stamp duties and advertising tax.

Example of Authoritarian Control: Nigeria (1903)

A law from 1903, through the newspaper proclamation of 1903, was introduced in the protectorate of southern Nigeria. The proclamation aimed to control the registration, printing, and publishing in the protectorate.

Libertarian System

This system admits that the state is a necessary evil. It does not accept that the state is the highest expression of human organization. It states that man is a rational being capable of thinking and reaching decisions while still advancing his interests, and should be allowed considerable degrees of latitude to develop his interest.

Proponents of the Libertarian System

The proponents of the Libertarian System include Locke, Tailton, and Jefferson.

Role of Media in Libertarian System

The implication of this system is that the media must be left alone to constitute a free marketplace for diverse opinions. Rather than the government checking the media, the media should check the government by providing information on the basis that society can decide whether to accept or reject that particular government.

Self-Correction in Libertarian Media

It is seen as the arbitrary way of curbing substandard goods, meaning media that trade on falsehood will disappear; only those who give acceptable services will survive.

Ownership and Control in Libertarian Media

Media ownership in this system is open to everybody, but evidently only a few can afford it because of the heavily capital investment involved. What is considered a check on the media is competition or economic terminology.

Broadcasting Challenges in Libertarian System

The challenge of broadcasting in this system is the scarce item - airwaves. The state intervened by monopolizing airwaves and allocating them as they wish. The existing conflict, therefore, is between individual rights to own broadcasting stations and state monopoly of airwaves.

Broadcasting Regulation in Libertarian Nations

In America and Britain, broadcasting is regulated by the FCC and board of governors and independent broadcasting authorities, respectively.

Social Responsibility Theory (SRT)

The emergence of SRT in America in 1940 sought to address the contradictions of the libertarian system: (1) When higher technology investments are made, the press becomes more commercially inclined. (2) The ever-increasing cost of investment in the press equally means fewer people will contemplate the venture, which resulted in concentration of press ownership in the hands of the few rich and limited access to the press by the public. (3) Fear of a total extinction of alternative views was the bone of contention in the libertarian system.

Tenets of Social Responsibility Theory

SRT posited that: The media should act responsibly by realizing that they have obligations to fulfill to the public. They should act as a stage where diverse interests compete. Ownership should not impede access to media, but the government should intervene by placing a subsidy on the press to produce their paper.

Soviet Communist Theory

In this system, ownership of the factors of production as belonging to the government is seized. No individual owns anything but the working class, to ensure peace and unity. The party directs the affairs of men and institutions.

Tenets of Soviet Communist Theory

The media should serve the interest of the state, represented by the ruling party or the working class. There should be no private ownership of the media. The media should perform the functions of socializing, education, information, motivation, and above all, mobilization with desired norms. The media should respond to the wishes and needs of the audience insofar as some communist society will not go against the wisdom of the ruling party. The party, through its central committee, oversees and charges the media for derailing and going anti-social in publication. The media should support the Marxist-Leninist principles, the objective view of society, and support progressive movements. The Communist Party is not a construct of the 21st century, but it is still practiced.

Developmental Media System of Development

It came as the follow-up of the four theories popularized by Sibert et al. In the view of many, it came as a child of circumstance. McQuail linked it to the developing nations and their needs.

Origin of Developmental Media System

After independence, many third-world countries had an urgent need for development, and independent journalists who saw themselves as key players in national development insisted that concerted effort and peace were critical to development.

McQuail's Principles (1983) for Developmental Media System

McQuail postulated these principles in 1983: The media should accept and carry out positive development tasks in line with national policies. The media should give priority in their content to national culture and language. The media should be open to restrictions that will make them comply with economic priorities and development needs of the society. Links with other developing nations which are in close proximity, geographically, culturally, or politically, should be prioritized. The freedom of media workers in information gathering and dissemination goes with responsibility. The state has a right to intervene in or restrict media operations by means of censorship or in any other control form in the interest of development ends. The fundamental factor of this theory is that media should support national development, political autonomy, and cultural identity.

Democratic Participant Media System

Dennis McQuail postulated this theory. It is dedicated to the need for horizontal rather than vertical communication in society. It became obvious that top-down communication was not effective in endangering sustainable development. Thus, it was necessary to create a system that will involve the citizenry, who are beneficiaries of the development program, in communication design, plan, execution, and implementation.

Reasons for the Emergence of Democratic Participant Media System

This theory came as a result of reaction against commercialization and monopolization by private investors and the centralization and bureaucracy of public-owned media.

Principles of Democratic Participant Media

The media under this theory should recognize the following: Individual and minority groups have a right to access media and the right to be served by the media according to the people’s needs. Their organization and content should not be subject to centralized political or bureaucratic control. The media should exist primarily for their audience. Groups, organizations, and local communities should own and manage their local media. Small-scale media are better than large-scale media. Needs relating to mass media are neither adequately expressed through individual consumer demands nor through the state or major institutions.

The Revolutionary Media System

When media are used to mobilize the citizenry against some unpopular regime or policies, they are said to be operating under revolutionary doctrines. Revolution has always been adopted by man in an attempt to better his life. It occurs when people see the need to expose leadership.

Characteristics of Revolutionary Media

The major characteristics of this media, according to Stephenson (1994), include: The media operate illegally. They have just one aim, and that is to overthrow the government. They ignore existing media laws in the country. They cease to exist or change in character upon completion of their task. They operate most times from hideouts, thus circumventing government control.

What are "Media Systems"?

These are part of a grand design adopted by society for the attainment of goals.

What is the core assumption of the Authoritarian Media System?

The assumption of this political system is that individuals can only attain their potentials in an organized society, and an organized society finds its highest expression in the state. Furthermore, the state must be run by wise men, the greatest individuals, and the ultimate authority to decide for the common good.

What is the role of media in Authoritarian Systems?

Media in an authoritarian society are assigned definite roles in tandem with desirable goals envisaged for such a society. These roles include: Dissemination of information, ideas, and attitudes of the ruling group.

How is media ownership structured in Authoritarian Systems?

Media are monopolized by the government. Private ownership, if any, goes to a selected few who are trusted by the government to not stray away from the principle of the state policy.

Where and when was the Authoritarian Media System historically practiced?

The authoritarian system was practiced by most governments in Europe from the 16th to 18th century by Britain, Spain, Germany, France, and some colonial governments in America.

What forms of media control are used in Authoritarian Systems?

Media control in the authoritarian system takes the following forms: Legislation, Economic function, Taxation, Direct appointment of editorial staff, and Sanctions.

What are examples of legislative control under Authoritarianism?

Legislative measures provide conditions which scare the private media in the form of patents to printers (publishing without a license is illegal), taxes on knowledge (which reduce circulation of newspapers and force publishers out of business), and laws of libel and sedition. The taxes include stamp duties and advertising tax.

What was the Newspaper Proclamation of 1903 in Nigeria an example of?

A law from 1903, through the newspaper proclamation of 1903, was introduced in the protectorate of southern Nigeria. The proclamation aimed to control the registration, printing, and publishing in the protectorate.

What is the Libertarian System's view on the state and individuals?

This system admits that the state is a necessary evil. It does not accept that the state is the highest expression of human organization. It states that man is a rational being capable of thinking and reaching decisions while still advancing his interests, and should be allowed considerable degrees of latitude to develop his interest.

Who were the key proponents of the Libertarian System?

The proponents of the Libertarian System include Locke, Tailton, and Jefferson.

What is the primary role of media in a Libertarian System?

The implication of this system is that the media must be left alone to constitute a free marketplace for diverse opinions. Rather than the government checking the media, the media should check the government by providing information on the basis that society can decide whether to accept or reject that particular government.

How does "self-correction" function in Libertarian Media?

It is seen as the arbitrary way of curbing substandard goods, meaning media that trade on falsehood will disappear; only those who give acceptable services will survive.

Who owns media in a Libertarian System, and what acts as a check on them?

Media ownership in this system is open to everybody, but evidently only a few can afford it because of the heavily capital investment involved. What is considered a check on the media is competition or economic terminology.

What is the main challenge for broadcasting in the Libertarian System?

The challenge of broadcasting in this system is the scarce item - airwaves. The state intervened by monopolizing airwaves and allocating them as they wish. The existing conflict, therefore, is between individual rights to own broadcasting stations and state monopoly of airwaves.

How is broadcasting regulated in Libertarian nations like America and Britain?

In America and Britain, broadcasting is regulated by the FCC and board of governors and independent broadcasting authorities, respectively.

What were the reasons for the emergence of the Social Responsibility Theory (SRT)?

The emergence of SRT in America in 1940 sought to address the contradictions of the libertarian system: (1) When higher technology investments are made, the press becomes more commercially inclined. (2) The ever-increasing cost of investment in the press equally means fewer people will contemplate the venture, which resulted in concentration of press ownership in the hands of the few rich and limited access to the press by the public. (3) Fear of a total extinction of alternative views was the bone of contention in the libertarian system.

What are the key tenets of the Social Responsibility Theory?

SRT posited that: The media should act responsibly by realizing that they have obligations to fulfill to the public. They should act as a stage where diverse interests compete. Ownership should not impede access to media, but the government should intervene by placing a subsidy on the press to produce their paper.

What is the concept of ownership in the Soviet Communist Theory?

In this system, ownership of the factors of production as belonging to the government is seized. No individual owns anything but the working class, to ensure peace and unity. The party directs the affairs of men and institutions.

What are the tenets of the Soviet Communist Theory regarding media's role and ownership?

The media should serve the interest of the state, represented by the ruling party or the working class. There should be no private ownership of the media. The media should perform the functions of socializing, education, information, motivation, and above all, mobilization with desired norms. The media should respond to the wishes and needs of the audience insofar as some communist society will not go against the wisdom of the ruling party. The party, through its central committee, oversees and charges the media for derailing and going anti-social in publication. The media should support the Marxist-Leninist principles, the objective view of society, and support progressive movements. The Communist Party is not a construct of the 21st century, but it is still practiced.