PSYC1030 - CONTENT QUIZ 1

what are clinical pyschologists

clinical psychology is the study aimed to diganose and treat mental, emotional, and behavioural disorders. They integrate scientific research, psychological theory and clinical knowledge to understand and alleviate psychological distress. Clinical psychologists focus on psychological therapy, assessment, and behavioural interventions.

what do we use to diagnose/define mental disorders

we use the Diagnositc and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V). This is a biopsychosocial approach.

how does the DSM-5 work

Within the manual there are 18 different classes of disorders and a list of criteria for diganosing each condition (if you have at least 5 symptoms you can be diagnosed). However there is also a set of decision rules for deciding if met.

what are some issues within the DSM-5

heterogeneity - 2 people with the same diagnosis can have very different symptoms

comorbidity - if you have 1 illness, more likely to have another

subjective - who is to determine the exact symptoms of a specific disorder and they can be influenced by the times they are made (eg. homosexuality was listed as a personality disturbance in the DSM-1)

what are the four fundamental ways to treat mental disorders

psychodynamic

behavioural

biological

cognitive-behavioural

what is the psychodynamic approach

the unconscious processes believes that behaviour, thoughts, and emotions are governed by unconscous drives and motivations. The goal of therapy then is to bring these unconscious elements into conscious awareness to be then explored and understood.

early childhood experiences believes that the childhood shapes the personality and future relational patterns. And that past experiences influence present behaviour in ways that may not be immediately obvious

inner conflicts (ie. unconscious desires) create psychological distress and defense mechanisms manage or hide these conflicts.

what are the treatments used in the psychodynamic approach

the therapeutic relationship is the ways that the client and therapist interact, and the emotions that come up used to gain a deeper understanding of the client.

techniques used in psychodynamics are free association, interpretation, dream analysis, and working through the transference process.

what is the biological approach

mental disorders have physical (biological) causes

disorders related to brain structure and function, genetic factors, and biochemical imbalances.

we could have neurological and neurochemical factors, genetic and epigenetic influences (trauma/nutrition), endocrine factors (stress, thyroid etc.), medical conditions and physical health (substance use)

what treatment methods are used via the biological approach

to treat this we use medication (such as mood stabilisers, and antipsychotics). You can also used neurofeedback, ECT, TMS.

what is the behavioural approach

focuses on observable behaviours and the ways in which they are learned.

explained by classical and operant conditioning.

what are the treatment methods for the behavioural approach

therapy involves techniques such as - systematic desensitization for phobias and operant conditioning techniques for modifying behaviour in children.

what is the cognitive-behavioural approach

cognitions are also important - dysfunctional thinking leads to dysfunctional emotions or behaviours.

aims to identify and challenge distorted or irrational thoughts and beliefs, and replace them with more realistic, positive ones.

it follows the ABC model - Activating event, Beliefs or thoughts about that event, Consequences (your emotional, physiological and behavioural consequences)

how can we evaluate the effectiveness of certain therapies

you can use the American Psychological Association guidelines

OR

• follow these three criteria:

1. at least two independent randomised controlled trials (RCTs) indicate that the intervention is useful

2. the active treatment must be better than either a placebo or an alternative active treatment

3. the RCT must be competently carried out

what is the definition of personality

the character traits that identify what makes a person who they are. It is the unique way each of us responds to the world around us - our consistent pattern of behaviours, thoughts, and emotions.

it defines an individual and differentiates them from others. It represents a dynamic combination of biological, psychological, and environmental influences.

what does consistency refer to (in personality)

personality traits tend to remain relatively stable across time and situations.

what does uniqueness refer to (in personality)

personality highlights what makes an individual distinct from others

what does individuality refer to (in personality)

it encompasses both innate tendencies and learned behaviours.

what are traits

traits are the building blocks of personality and refer to enduring characteristics that influence behaviour

traits are stable tendencies to think, feel, or behave in certain ways across different situations. They exist on dimensions or spectrums, rather than as categorical types

traits contribute to individual differences in how people respond to similar situations and predict certain behaviours

what are some examples of traits

1. extraversion: being outgoing and energetic (vs introversion)

2. conscientiousness: being organised

3. neuroticism

what are patterns

patterns refer to the repeated ways in which individuals interacts with the world.

these patterns are influences by both internal factors (eg. biology, cognition) and external factors (eg. environment)

while patterns are relatively stable, they can change in response to major life events, environmental shifts, or deliberate effort (ie. therapy)

what is an example of a pattern

a highly agreeable person consistently demonstrates cooperative and empathetic behaviour

what are individual differences

this refers to the variability in personality traits and behaviours across people

these differences are what makes each person unique. They result from the interaction of genetic predispositions, life experiences, and cultural influences.

they shape how people experience and navigate the world. They are critical for tailoring interventions in clinical psychology.

what is an example of an individual difference

two people may both score high in extraversion, but one might express it by socialising at parties, and the other expresses it through engaging in public speaking

why is studying personality important

1. clinical - diagnosing and treating mental health conditions

2. social - predicting social interactions and relationships

3. developmental - understanding how traits emerge and evolve throughout life

what are the two approaches to studying personality

through nomothetic vs idiographic approaches

what is the nomothetic approach

searching for general laws or principles that govern all human behaviour. It emphasises universality and generalisation. Utilises personality models (eg. big 5). Studies of genetic contributions to personality

it is quantitative measurements

what is the idiographic approach

focusing on understanding the unique aspects of an individual. It emphasises. the individuality over generalisation. Tracking the personality development of a single person over decades to understand how traits evolve with age and life event. This allows therapists to design specific therapy plans for an individual.

it is qualitative measurements

what causes personality types

personality is influenced through nature and nurture.

personality is shaped by a combination of biological inheritance and environmental influences. Psychologists categorise these influences into three main factors:

1. genetic factors

2. shared environmental factors

3. non-shared environmental factors

genetic factors on personality

inherited traits from parents. influence brain structure and function, such as neurotransmitter activity, which impacts personality traits (eg. dopamine systems are linked to traits like extraversion and reward sensitivity).

shared environmental factors on personality

includes shared parenting style, socioeconomic status, cultural values. However, research shows that shared environmental factors have minimal influence on most personality traits compared to genetic and non-shared factors.

non-shared environmental factors on personality

Unique life experience.

includes different peer groups, unique life events, birth orders. Non-shared factors explain the majority of environmental variance in personality traits.

what is the psychodynamic approach

explained by the interaction between id, ego, and superego. It is developed through psychosexual stages.

it is criticised for its lack of empirical evidence and its focus on sexuality. But sexual development and sexuality play an important part of psychology

what is the id

pleasure principle - seek pleasure and avoid pain. It is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind, operating entirely on an unconscious level.

what is the superego

perfection principle - pushing the individual to strive for moral perfection. It is the moral and ethical component of personality, representing societal and parental standards. It has two sub systems: conscious and ego ideal.

what is the ego

reality principle - delay gratification when necessary. It is the rational and realistic part of the mind that mediates between the id and the external world. It is the executive decision maker - balance the impulsive desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego.

what are the main tests used to measure intelligence

1. aptitude tests - focuses on future capacity (predictive)

2. achievement tests - measures current knowledge

3. intelligence tests - measures general cognitive functioning, or specific cognitive abilities.

4. personality tests - measures enduring personality characteristics

aptitude tests

designed to predict how well a person might perform in a particular domain with training or education

often used in educational admissions and job selections. A common example is the GAMSAT.

achievement tests

achievement tests measure current knowledge or skill proficiency in a specific subject/area

they reflect what someone has already learned

typically aligned with a curriculum or set of standards, scores often used to gauge mastery, progress, or instructional effectiveness. For example school exams/quizzes

intelligence tests

focus on problem-solving, reasoning, memory, processing speed, and sometimes verbal ability

results can be used to identify giftedness, intellectual disabilities, or to assist in educational or vocational guidance

typically more focused on aptitude (ie. what are your abilities)

An example is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

personality tests

used in clinical, counselling, and organisational settings to understand individuals’ typical patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving.

results can guide treatment, self-awareness, or personnel decisions.

an example is the big 5 inventory

how do we test the efficiency of a test

1. standardisation

2. reliability

3. validity

4. bias

standardisation

consistent administration; same conditions (ie. time limits, format).

Has a clear rubric or marking guide - ensure all markers grade responses consistently by following a standard marking scheme

appropriate level for the target audience - normed for students at appropriate level in the curriculum.

reliability

test - retest consistency - similar quiz a week later, would they get roughly the same scores?

internal consistency - are the questions within the quiz all measuring the same construct? Eg. do the first half and the second half yield similar results when you look at total scores?

clear, unambiguous questions - if questions are poorly worded, students may interpret them differently, hurting reliability.

validity

content validity - do questions reflect the actual course content and learning objectives?

criterion validity - do sources align with other measures of performance (eg. final exam, major projects)

construct validity - does the test measure the theoretical concept or trait it claims to measure (eg. intelligence)

bias

ensure that everyone has an equal chance to succeed/ not affected by external factors such as gender etc.

cultural/language bias - use clear, inclusive language. Avoid examples or references that are unnecessarily specific to a particular culture

accessibility - ensure the format accommodates students with learning differences, visual/auditory impairments, or other needs

avoid trick questions - focus on testing knowledge

what are the origins of intelligence testing

Binet and Simon produced the first form of intelligence testing. They made children perform a series of tasks, each associated with the age at which most children could successfully perform them. Whereby age is normed.

Stanford then introduced the concept of IQ, which was the ratio of a child’s mental age to their chronological age (IQ = (mental/chron) x 100)

modern IQ tests have now moved away from ratio IQ to deviation IQ. They are performance relative to (age normed) standardised data. With a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15.

what do psychologists measure when it comes to IQ

1. learning and remembering information

2. recognising concepts and their relations

3. reasoning and problem solving

4. learning from experience and adapting to novel situations

5. processing speed

what was spearman’s two factor theory

g = general factor underlying all mental abilities s = specific factors that are unique to individual tasks (eg. special aptitude for remembering words)

overarching factor underlies all mental abilities

what is horn and cattells theory

1. fluid intelligence: ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns

2. crystallised intelligence: accumulated knowledge and skills.

what is stress

1. any circumstance (stimulus) that threatens an organisms well being

2. actually threatens OR perceived as a threat

3. elicits a coping response (physiological or psychological) - the stress response

4. fast and automatic

5. evolutionarily very old

what is the stress response

fight or flight - survival mechanism - react quickly to life threatening situation

rapid recognition of potentially harmful stimuli to mobilise the defence responses

an array of neural and endocrine systems that mobilise physiological and psychological resources allowing response to the present challenge to homeostasis and overall well being

what does the stress response do to the body

1. mobilise energy resources

2. increase blood pressure

3. turn off everything that’s not essential to surviving in the moment - digestion, growth, reproduction.

4. think more clearly

5. learning and memory are enhanced.

6. sensory thresholds sharpened

what is the downside of the stress response

the stress response is a short term response to save life (not meant to be sustained for long periods).

It also doesn’t distinguish between different stressors - there’s only a single stress response for all stressors (many modern life stressors are not life threatening and are social and psychological - people stress people).

what are the side effects of long term activation of the stress response system

1. digestive problems

2. headaches

3. heart disease

4. sleep problems

5. immune system impairment

why should we have a balance of no stress and stress

to keep us stimulated. This form of stress is called good stress (mild, transient, not a complete loss of control) as compared to bad stress (severe, chronic, lack of predictability, lack of control)

what is the cognitive theory of appraisal

stress is not just about the external event or situation - it’s about the ongoing interaction between the person’s appraisal (perception) of the event and their ability to cope with it.

split in two and suggests:

1. primary appraisal

2. secondary appraisal

what is primary appraisal

about the stressor.

evaluation of whether a stressor is perceived as a threat or a challenge (this is subjective to each individual) - determine stimulus significance for the individual (either considered as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful)

what is secondary appraisal

about the individual

evaluation of necessary skills and resources for dealing with the stressor - evaluate resources and options available (either personal skills and abilities, social support, or coping strategies)

why should we understand appraisal

1. implement stress management programs - teach coping skills that increase perceived control (secondary appraisal) and provide education on reframing stressors (changing negative threats into challenges)

2. therapeutic techniques (eg. CBT) - help people identify and modify distorted appraisals (eg. catastrophizing) and encourage realistic assessments of resources and problem solving strategies.

3. building resiliences - when people learn that they can handle one stressor effectively, it boosts their sense of competence and this improved sense of competence positively affects the appraisal process for future stressors.

4. role of mindfulness and acceptance

what are the main sources of stress

1. frustration

2. conflict

3. change

4. pressure

frustration

1. loss - losing something that was part of daily life (losing something you were expecting)

2. failure - not achieving a target you expected to get

3. goal discrepancy - a gap between what you want and what you can currently do or what the situation allows, leading to anger

4. emotional toll

conflict

1. approach-approach conflict - choosing between two or more attractive options

2. avoidance-avoidance conflict - choosing between two or more unattractive options

3. approach-avoidance conflict - a single goal or decision that has both positive and negative options

   this is stressful because it creates indecision and uncertainty, fear of consequences, and ongoing inner tension.

change

1. positive changes (ie. getting married, starting a dream job, moving houses)

2. negative changes (divorces, job loss)

3. uncertainty and adapting

4. feeling out of control (caused by unexpected or unwanted changes)

pressure

1. workplace

2. academic

3. social/peer

4. self-imposed

this is stressful because it creates a sense of urgency, fear of evaluation, and potential overload

what are the main responses to stress

• emotional; anger, anxiety, fear, sadness

• physiological; the fight or flight response - alarm stage → resistance stage → exhaustion stage

• behavioural; active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the stress demands (constructive vs maladaptive coping)

what is constructive behavioural coping

1. problem-focused coping - directly adresses the source of stress

2. emotion focused coping - manages emotional distress when the stressor is out of one’s control

3. seeking social support

4. short term use of defensive coping - momentary denial or mental escape can sometimes reduce crippling anxiety in a crisis. The key is to switch back to constructive actions.

what is maladaptive behavioural coping

1. blaming oneself and learned helplessness

2. lashing out

3. indulging

4. defensive coping - denial or avoidance of the problem

what are the main depressive disorders

• disruptive mood disregulation disorder

• major depressive disorder

• persistent depressive disorder

• premenstrual dysphonic disorder

what is the compulsory symptom criterion for MDD

a person needs to have demonstrated 5 or more symptoms during the same 2 week period for most of the day

they have had a significant change to their previous functioning

they have had a sad mood, and a loss of interest or pleasure

what are some other symptoms of MDD

• significant weight or appetite change

• suicidal thoughts

• change in sleep patterns

• fatigue

• psychomotor agitation or retardation

• difficulty concentrating

what are the exclusion criterion in the DSM-5

• the symptoms are not due to the effect of a substance or another medical condition

• the symptoms explained are not due to a response to loss/grief

what are the compulsory symptom criterion for persistent depressive disorder

a person needs to demonstrate depressed mood for most days for at least 2 years

the person also needs to display at least two symptoms from the following:

1. insomnia/hypersomnia

2. low self esteem

3. low energy/fatigue

4. sense of hopleessness

symptoms are more chronic than MDD

what is the course of MDD

• some people rarely experience remission. Others can go for a number of years without experiencing an MDD episode

• this disorder is known for spontaneous recovery

what is the course of persistent depressive disorder

• the symptoms are at a lower level compared to MDD, but spontaneous recovery is less likely

what are the common causes of depressive disorders

genetics and disrupted neurotransmitter functioning (eg. dopamine) are common causal models

there are also environmental factors and prejudicial childhood experiences that can cause these disorders

mostly thought about/measured through the diathesis-structure model

what is the cognitive behavioural model (depressive disorders)

• suggests that depression is maintained by a lack of positive reinforcement which in turn leads to a sense of learned helplessness

• depression is thought about in the sense of negative thoughts relating to the self, the world and the future.

• They demonstrate a pessimistic explanatory style:

  1. bad things → internal, stable factors

  2. good things → external, random factors

treatment for depressive disorders

• antidepressant medication. Such as seratonin reuptake inhibitors

• electroconvulsive therapy

• psychological interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy and interpersonal therapy.

what is clinically significant anxiety

when a person’s anxiety is causing them a great deal of distress or is interfering with their functioning

what are some anxiety disorders

• separation anxiety disorder

• selective mutism

• phobia

• social anxiety disorder

what are the three systems of anxiety

1. cognitive system (what people think in anxious situations)

2. behavioural system

3. physiological system

what is phobia

people who demonstrate a very high level of fear, anxiety, or avoidance in relation to a very specific circumscribed situation or object

these people must also have had the phobia for 6 months or longer and is not explained by other illness

the anxiety is out of proportion to danger

what is social anxiety disorder

fear or anxiety about or avoidance of social situations and interactions in which there is the possibility of being scrutinised/judged by others

similar symptoms to specific phobia

what is generalised anxiety disorder

• excessive worrying → worrying that is totally uncontrollable and lasts for 6 months or longer

• persons must also experience 3 out of 6 physiological symptoms associated with their anxiety

what is panic disorder

recurrent unexpected panic attacks

a person must have had at least one panic attack every month followed by persistent anticipatory anxiety not related to another illness

comorbidity

• when a person meets criteria simultaneously for more than one diagnosis

what are some common causes of anxiety disorders

• anxiety runs in families

• temperament (eg. shyness)

• environmental factors

• stressful life events

• parenting style

what is the common treatment for anxiety disorders

• cognitive behavioural therapy

• psycho-education

• cognitive restructuring

• exposure (follows the model of identify → components → rate → rearrange → implement)

what is the behavioural approach to personality

the idea that personality is under the control of genetic factors and also environmental reinforces/punishers

behaviour is also strictly deterministic (ie. we don’t consciously choose how we behave)

it is also thought that our behaviour is determined by largely unconscious processes.

what are the social learning theories (personality)

• cognition was an important cause of personality

• personality is the interactions between a person’s traits, thoughts, and the environment their behaviour is expressed in..

what is radical determinism

the idea that behavioural, cognitive, and environmental variables interact to produce personality.

what are the humanistic theories of personality

positive motivations can be related to the expression of personality

personality was a function of the organism, the self, and the conditions of worth (where a world without conditions of worth are idealised)

what are conditions of worth

the expectations of rules society puts on our behaviour

What was Maslow’s theory of personality (and hierarchy)

• Maslow thought that personality was the expression of the tendency to strive for self-actualisation (potential)

• to meet self actualisation people need to meet Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

• however this hierarchy is subjective so each concept is hard to test

what is the type model (to measure personality)

• a type model of personality was the humoral theory - the idea was that you could characterise a person’s personality based on what sort of humor, or fluid they had in excess in their body

what is the trait model to measure personality

• measures personality based on dimensions/spectrums

what are personality traits

traits are the factors responsible for causing patterns of behaviour

how can we identify how many traits a person has

we need to know how many dimensions of personality there are (there seems to be around 3-16)

Big 5 Personality traits

split into neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness,

Eysenck’s theory on dimensions of traits

• argues that there are three bipolar dimensions that can be used to explain personality:

  1. extraversion to introversion'

  2. neuroticism to emotional stability

  3. psychoticism to self control

Biopsychological Theory to personality traits

• proposes the behavioural inhibition systems and the behavioural approach system are the two systems that control our behaviour

• the BIS was thought to be related to an individuals sensitivity to punishment, whilst the BAS was related to the individuals sensitivity to reward.