period one key terms

Las Castas

Hierarchical social classification system in colonial Spanish America.

Peninsulares

Spaniards born in Spain, top of the hierarchy.

Creoles

Spaniards born in America.

Mestizos

People of Spanish + Native ancestry.

Mulattos

People of Spanish + African ancestry.

Zambos

People of Native + African ancestry, lowest status.

Impact of Las Castas

Reinforced racial stereotypes and inequalities, shaped social/economic structures, and left legacies of inequality that persist today.

Encomienda System

Spanish Crown granted settlers (encomenderos) the right to native labor and tribute in return for “protection” and Christianization.

Impact of Encomienda System

Massive native population decline due to disease, abuse, and harsh conditions; disrupted traditional societies; formed foundation of colonial agriculture and infrastructure.

Smallpox

Deadly disease introduced to the Americas; Native Americans lacked immunity, spread rapidly through trade and contact.

Impact of Smallpox

Catastrophic population decline, social collapse, opened way for European conquest, long-term demographic/cultural/political effects.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer sailing for Spain; voyages (1492–1504) initiated sustained European presence in the Americas.

Impact of Columbus’ Voyages

Sparked European colonization, began Columbian Exchange, connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas through trade networks.

Atlantic Slave Trade

Forced transport of ~12.5 million Africans to the Americas, primarily for plantation labor; Middle Passage was brutal transatlantic journey.

Impact of Atlantic Slave Trade

Devastated African societies, supplied labor crucial to American plantations, created long-lasting racial and cultural legacies.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing new lands outside Europe; Spain got lands west, Portugal got lands east.

Impact of Treaty of Tordesillas

Shaped colonization patterns (Spain in Americas, Portugal in Brazil/Africa/Asia), established linguistic/cultural divides, caused conflict with other European powers.

Black Legend

Narrative portraying Spain as exceptionally cruel in its colonies, promoted by Spain’s rivals.

Impact of Black Legend

Justified actions of other European powers, damaged Spain’s reputation, reinforced anti-Spanish stereotypes.

Valladolid Debate (1550–1551)

Formal debate on morality/legality of conquering/converting natives; de las Casas defended natives, Sepúlveda argued conquest justified.

Impact of Valladolid Debate

Advanced human rights/just war ideas, influenced reforms limiting encomienda, early framework for colonial ethics debates.

St. Augustine (1565)

First permanent European settlement in present-day U.S., founded by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés in Spanish Florida.

Impact of St. Augustine

Began sustained European presence, base of Spanish influence, brought conflict/disease/forced labor for natives.

Coureurs de Bois

Independent French fur traders/explorers in North America’s interior.

Impact of Coureurs de Bois

Built alliances with Native Americans, established fur trade networks, gathered knowledge shaping New France.

Navigational Tools & Ships

Caravel: small, fast Portuguese ship; Astrolabe: measured sun/star altitude for latitude; Sextant: measured angles between celestial bodies/horizon, allowed longitude calculation.

Impact of Navigational Tools

Improved navigation, enabled transatlantic voyages, trade routes, and global empires.

Spanish Mission System

Religious outposts in Southwest & California to convert natives, integrate into Spanish culture, often forced labor.

Impact of Spanish Mission System

Spread Christianity and European customs, disrupted native cultures, created lasting cultural blending in regions like New Mexico and California.

Pueblo Revolt (1680)

Uprising of Pueblo Indians in New Mexico led by Popé, resisting forced labor, religious suppression, and drought.

Impact of Pueblo Revolt

Drove Spanish out for 12 years, Spain allowed more Pueblo cultural/religious freedom upon return, symbol of Native resilience.

Algonquin

Northeast/Great Lakes; semi-nomadic, hunting/fishing/farming, lived in wigwams, often allied with French.

Iroquois

Northeast (NY); confederacy, longhouses, matrilineal, skilled farmers, strong political alliance.

Chinook

Northwest (Columbia River); sedentary, fishing, trade, plank houses, social hierarchy, potlatch ceremonies.

Pueblo

Southwest (NM & AZ); sedentary farmers, adobe/stone villages, irrigation, complex rituals, led Pueblo Revolt.

Zambos (more detail)

African + Indigenous ancestry, lowest status, faced discrimination, often joined maroon/native resistance communities.

Mestizos (more detail)

Spanish + Native ancestry, large population, middle caste, often farmers/artisans, symbolized cultural blending.

Maroons

Escaped enslaved Africans, formed independent communities, preserved African traditions, resisted colonial control and slavery.