Psychology LO1 + SAC 1

Development

changes in an organism(human or animal) that occur over time.

Areas of Development

Emotional

Cognitive

Social

Physical

emotional development

involves changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these feelings are expressed, interpreted and dealt with.

cognitive development

involves changes in an individual’s mental abilities.

social development

involves changes in an individual’s relationship w/ others and their interacting skills.

physical development

involves changes in the body and it’s various systems. (physical and psychological develop. don’t occur independently of each other).

Stages of Lifespan Development

infancy: birth - 2 yrs

childhood: 2 - 12 yrs

adolescence: 12- 20 yrs

early adulthood: 20 - 40 yrs

middle age: 40 - 65 yrs

older age: 65 - beyond

Developmental Norms

standards by which the progress of development can be measured

Hereditary (nature) Factors

internal factors, also known as ‘nature’, that involves the transmission of characteristics from biological factors such as genes

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* influences many physical aspects; hair and eye colour, blood types, disorders, rate brain matures.
* genes influence psychological develop. - brain, nervous syst. and hormones play role in thoughts, feelings and behaviours.

Environmental (nurture) Factors

refers to all experiences, objects & events to which we are exposed to throughout our lifetime.

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* also plays important role in shaping psychological develop. - but less obvious/significant.
* influence psychological develop. are personal and socio cultural factors: origins, income level, life events, health, friendship group.

Nature vs Nurture

A debate whether heredity (nature) or environment (nurture) determines how we develop.

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* Nature refers to how genetics influence an individual's personality,
* Nurture refers to how their environment (including relationships and experiences) impacts their development.

Attachment

the emotional bond which form between an infant and another person.

→ formed during infancy influences emotional develop. (healthy attach. = more emotional control)

Ainsworth's Theory

the strange situation: a standardised test for measuring attachment relo a child has with caregiver.

→ infant and caregiver taken into unfamiliar room before infant is exposed to series of sep. and reunions involving infant, caregiver, and stranger.

→ found that infants can form diff. types of attachments w caregiver. - varies on who strong connection is.

Secure Attachment

infant shows balance between dependence and exploration. - able to feel safe and depend on caregiver.

Insecure Avoidant Attachment

infant doesn’t not seek closeness or contact w caregiver and treats them like a stranger.

Insecure Resistant Attachment

infant appears anxious even when caregiver is near.

\- become upset when separated from cg, re-establishes contact upon reunion but then resists contact after.

Disorganised Attachment

shows inconsistent/odd and contradicting behaviours during sep. from and reunion w caregiver.

\- no reaction to caregivers’ return etc, or cries when cg leaves but also when cg returns

Harlow's Experiments

Exp 1 Wire Surrogate Mother vs Cloth Surrogate Mother

to find out whether provision of food or contact comfort was more important in formation of mother-infant attachment.

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8 newborn rhesus monkeys separated from mothers after birth.

Group 1 - 4 isolated in cage where cloth mother provided food and wire mother didn’t.

Group 2 - 4 isolated in cage wire mother provided food and cloth mother didn’t.

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Result: all monkeys spent more with cloth surrogate mother → contact comfort over food

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→ also found that privation was as important in attachment through exp 2: deprived rhesus monkeys from social contact.

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Taken from mothers after birth.

Grp 1 - isolated 3 mths

Grp 2 - 6 mths

Grp 3 - 12 mths

they were more destructive, withdrawn and unable to relate socially the longer they were isolated.

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Privation - involves absence of the opp to satisfy something that is needed/desired (social contact in this case)

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Social behaviour

any action that is influenced, directly/indirectly by the actual/implied/imagined/expected presence of others

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early social behaviour:

smiling - first real pos social interaction

crying - early form on comm.

Sensitive Periods

a period of time during development when an organism is more responsive/sensitive to certain types on enviro experiences/learning

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‘ windows of opp. for learning ‘

* learning native language in this period is up to 12 yrs, window gradually closing from age 7.

Critical Periods

a specific period in develop. during which an organism is most vulnerable to deprivation/absence of certain enviro. exp.

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* will not recur at later stage → can have permanent/irreversible effect on develop.

Maladaptive Behaviour

any behaviour that is detrimental or interferes with an individual’s ability to adapt tp enviro and fulfil typical goal in society

Adaptive Behaviour

any behaviour that enables indiv to adjust to the enviro appropriately and effectively

Abnormality

any deviation from what is considered normal, typical, usual or healthy

Normality

refers to ways of thinking, feeling and behaving that indicate that a person is able to perform everyday tasks at a level required to fulfil roles in society (eg free from disabling thoughts)

Neurotypicality (neurotypical)

used to describe people whose neurological development and cognitive functionings are typical, conforming to what is considered normal in the general population.

→ in other words: the brain functions like that of the typical, ‘average’ person.

Neurodiversity (as normal variations of brain development within society)

used to describe people whose neurological development & cognitive functioning are atypical and deviate from what is considered normal/typical in the population.

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→ indivs diagnosed w intellectual disability may be described as neurodivergent

Learning Disabilities

any disorder that impairs learning and results in the person learning w greater difficulty.

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* learning disability: long term and permanent
* learning difficulty: relatively short term in nature and may change depending on indivs' circum.
* includes:

dyslexia -develop. disorder

dyscalculia -condition that affects ability to acquire mathematical skills

dyspraxia -condition that affects coordination of physical movements

supporting Psychological Development

there are range of mental health professionals and organisations who provide support services for the diagnosis and management of atypical behaviour or for mental wellbeing in general.

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some qualified mental health professionals deal with all types of psychological & behavioural problems,

while others specialise in diagnosing & treating specific problems.

Psychologists

a professional trained in the science of how people think, feel and behave.

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* can only work as psychologist & use psychologist title if they are registered by BPA + Aus Health Practitioner Regulation Agency

Psychiatrists

a qualified medical doctor who has obtained additional qualifications to become a specialist in diagnosis and treatment of mental illnesses

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* involves at least 11 yrs of study

Other Mental health Workers/Organisations

social workers,

mental health nurse,

admin., policy/planning positions w psych/professionals,

GP

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headspace,

kids helpline,

beyond blue,

SANE,

Assessment

assessment - involves collecting & interpreting info about how a person thinks, feels & behaves to make a diagnosis - formally referred to as ‘clinical assessment’

Assessment of Psychological Development and Atypical Behaviour

assessment where biological, psychological and social factors are considered in order to make a diagnosis and treatment plan.

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* usually done through clinical assessments:

face-to-face appointment/interviews,

behavioural observations,

psychological tests,

discovering strengths and weaknesses of abilities.

diagnosis

the process for identifying the type of disorder affecting an individual, as well as signs and symptoms using assessments tools, techniques and evidence.

DSM (Diagnostic & Statistical manual of Mental disorder)

a system for classifying and diagnosing mental disorders based on recognisable signs and symptoms.

* used for classifying behaviour for Diagnosis

Categorising behaviour for Diagnosis

* Categorical approach- does/doesn’t have a disorder.
* Dimensional approach - symptoms along a continuum on which people vary in degrees

Biopsychosocial Model

is an approach to describing & explaining psychological develop. & wellbeing through the interaction of biological, psychological & social factors.

biopsychosocial model - biological

involve physiologically based or determined influences, often not under our control → genes, age, gender, race, brain chem. etc

biopsychosocial model - psychological

involve all those internal, mental processes and influences → effects of prior experiences, resilience, learning and mem., emotions, beliefs etc

biopsychosocial model - social

involve influences from the external social environment in which we interact with others → interpersonal relos, cultural values & traditions, employment hist. etc

Labelling

the process of classifying an indiv. according to a specific diagnostic category → outcome is a label/name for their disorder

Stigma

a sign of social disapproval or social deficiency, often involving shame or disgrace

Social Stigma

the negative attitudes and beliefs held in the wider community that lead people to fear, exclude, avoid or unfairly discriminate against people

Self Stigma

occurs when an indiv. accepts the negative views and reactions of others, internalises them and applies them to themself.

ADHD (Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder)

a neurodevelopmental disorder involving persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive-impulse behaviour that adversely affects develop./everyday functioning.

characteristics of ADHD

* inattention - difficulty maintaining attention on tasks that don’t provide high stimulation or are rewarding.
* hyperactivity - excessive motor activity and difficulty remaining still
* impulsivity - act before thinking of consequences/outcomes

Types of ADHD

* predominantly inattentive presentation → problems w/ attention -


* predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation → ‘ ‘ hyperactivity & impulsivity
* combined presentation → ‘ ‘ all above

Autism

neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the way people communicate and interact with others and the world.

characteristics of Autism

* persistent difficulties interacting & communicating,
* more highly restrictive/repetitive behaviour,
* typical activities/characteristics are accompanied by atypical reactions to sensory stimuli.

risk factors of Autism

* biological factors:

\- physical or chemical changes in developing brain before birth or early infancy,

\- interaction of several genes in brain develop.,

\- chromosomal conditions ( fragile X syndrome)

\- very low birth weight,

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* psychological + social factors that may influence onset/exp. of autism:

indiv differences,

quality of treatment,

schooling,

home enviro.

Typical Behaviour

Behaviour that would usually occur/is appropriate & expected in given situation

Atypical Behaviour

Behaviour that differs markedly from what is expected in given situation.

what is taken in consideration when Categorising Typical and Atypical behaviours

* social norm - widely held standards that govern what people should/shouldn’t do in circum.

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* personal distress - when person is extremely upset/suffering emotionally and distress is reasonable response’

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* statistical rarity - how common. → more common = more typical


* cultural perspective - is it acceptable/a social norm in their culture

Erikson's Theory

describes the impact of certain social & cultural exp. on our social, emotional & personality develop. at various stages of life span. → based on research, case studies

stages in lifespan - erikson’s theory

Age Develop. period Psychosocial crisis


1. birth - 18mth | early infancy | trust vs mistrust → predic. enviro = trust
2. 18mths - 3yrs | late infancy | autonomy vs shame & doubt → indep. vs lacks it
3. 3 - 5 yrs | early childh. | initiative vs guilt → plan 4 oneself v scared 2 overstep
4. 5 - 12 yrs | mid & late childh. | industry vs inferiority →efforts=praised/rewarded vs downgraded or seen as ‘mischeif’
5. 12 - 18 yrs | adolescence | identity vs role confusion → overall image
6. 18 - 25 yrs | young adulth. | intimacy vs isolation → care abt another vs alone
7. 25 - 65 yrs | adulthood | generativity vs stagnation → hope 2 leave mark on future gens. and better future v sameness
8. 65 yrs + | late adulth. | integrity vs despair → satisfaction w ones life vs opp.

Piaget's Theory - Stages of Cognitive Develop.

suggests that children move through 4 diff stages of learning in cog. develop.

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1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 yrs)

infants explore & learn about the world through senses and motor activities

→ develops:

* object permanence (understanding object exists if they can’t be seen, heard or touched),
* goal directed behaviour (perform & complete seq of actions w purpose)

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2. Pre-operational stage (2 - 7 yrs)

children become increasingly able to mentally rep. objects & experiences. (to think abt & imagine something)

→ develops:

* symbolic-thinking (use of symbols to rep objects)
* egocentrism (tendency preceives world solely from one’s pov)
* animism (belief that everything that exists has consciousness)
* transformation (understanding one thing can change from one state/form to another)

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3. Concrete operational stage (7 - 12 yrs)

capable of true logic and thoughts & can perform mental operations - however, only applied to concrete objects/events

→ develops:

* mental operations (ability to accurately imagine conseqs. of something happening w/o it needing to happen)
* conservation (understanding that certain properties of object can remain same if appearance changes)
* classification (ability to organise into categories based on common ft.)

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4. Formal operational stage (12 yrs+)

more complex thought process is evident and thinking becomes more sophisticated.

→ develops:

* abstract thinking (way of thinking that doesn’t rely on able to see,exp., manipulate in order to understand)
* idealistic thinking (ability to realistically think abt future & what is possible, then make plans to achieve goals)

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Cognitive Development - Piaget’s Theory

the process of adaptation to the changing world. - involves an ongoing attempt to achieve assim. and accom.

Assimilation

the process of taking in new info and fitting it into and making it part of a pre-existing mental idea about objects/experiences.

→ EG a child may call a truck a car due to their pre-existing mental idea that cars have 4 wheels etc

Accommodation

involves changing a pre-existing mental idea in order to fit new info

→ EG a child may have a schema for birds (feathers, flying, etc.) and then they see a plane, which also flies, but would not fit into their bird schema.

Schema

A mental idea of what something is and how to act on it. - can be formed through assim. and accom.

Emotions

reactions to a personally significant matter/event. → stimulus may be external (eg comment made by someone) or internal (eg thoughts)

elements of an emotion

* subjective feelings
* expressive behaviour
* physiological response

subjective feeling

refers to the inner personal experience of an emotion. (eg embarrassed = turning red, wanting to shrink and disappear)

expressive behaviour

refers to the overt expressions of behaviour which communicate emotions. (eg facial expressions, body language)

physiological response:

bodily changes that occur when experiencing an emotion. (eg increased heart rate)